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Bread And Butter Pudding

Bread and butter pudding

Bread and butter pudding is a traditional dessert popular in British cuisine. It is essentially a baked form of French toast. It is made by layering slices of buttered bread scattered with raisins in an oven dish into which an egg and milk mixture (sometimes with vanilla or other spices added) is poured. It is then baked in an oven and served. Some people may serve it with custard, but often the pudding under the crust is runny enough to enjoy without sauce. Although the pudding is most often associated with childhood and school dinners, in some recipes a measure of whisky may be added for a more grown-up touch of luxury. Other modern variations include scattering fresh or dried fruit between the layers of bread, melting chocolate into the egg-milk mixture, and using unusual types of breads such as croissants to make it. Bread and butter pudding should not be confused with Bread pudding. Category:British cuisine Category:Puddings

Dessert

Dessert is a course that typically comes at the end of a dinner, usually consisting of sweet food but sometimes of a strongly flavored one, such as some cheeses. The word comes from the Old French desservir, meaning "to clear the table". Dessert is most commonly used in Hiberno-English, American, Canadian English, Australian English and in French. Sweet, pudding or afters would be more typical in other variants of Commonwealth English for this course. Dessert as a standard part of a Western meal is a relatively recent development. Before the 19th-century rise of the middle class, and the mechanization of the sugar industry, sweets were a privilege of the aristocracy, or a rare holiday treat. As sugar became cheaper and more readily available, the development and popularity of desserts spread accordingly. Some cultures do not have a separate final sweet course but mix sweet and savoury dishes throughout the meal as in Chinese cuisine, or reserve elaborate dessert concoctions for special occasions. Often, the dessert is seen as a separate meal or snack rather than a course, and may be eaten some time after the meal (usually in less formal settings). Some restaurants specialize in dessert.

Common types of desserts


- Biscuits or cookies
- Cakes
- Crumbles
- Custards
- Fruit
- Gelatin desserts
- Ice creams
- Meringues
- Pastries
- Pies or tarts
- Puddings
- Sorbets
- Soufflés
- Trifles Trifle Category:Desserts Category:Food and drink Category:Meals ja:デザート

British cuisine

Although it has consistently excelled in its desserts and puddings, in terms of its savoury dishes, British cuisine still suffers from a relatively poor international reputation, being typically represented by dishes consisting of simply cooked meats and vegetables (so called "meat and two veg") that need to be accompanied by bottled sauces or other condiments after cooking to make them more palatable. Whilst this reputation has never been wholly deserved, as high quality fare has always been available to those who know where to find it, it is undeniable that in general food served in Britain often fails to reach the same general level of excellence that can easily be found across English Channel in France. During the Middle Ages, British cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation; its decline can be firmly traced back to the late 18th century when the majority of the British population began to move away from the land, and was compounded by the effects of rationing during two World Wars (rationing finally ended in 1954). However, in Britain today there is more interest in food than there has ever been before, with celebrity chefs leading the drive toward raising the standard of food in the UK. In 2005 British cuisine reached new heights when 600 food critics writing for Restaurant magazine named 14 British restaurants among the 50 best restaurants in the world with the number one spot going to The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire and its chef Heston Blumenthal. Despite the move toward better quality fare, a general ignorance of good food persists amongst the general population who, over the last 30 years or so, with their increasingly busy lifestyles, have become used to pre-packaged "ready meals" that require little preparation time.

Industrial-era foods

The Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the 18th century is responsible for the former very poor reputation of British food. Unlike the populations of most other countries, by the mid 19th century the majority of the British population were working in city factories and living in very poor housing. The new working classes had lost contact with the land and the standard of cooking declined as a result. working class In the home, food was indeed frequently reduced to "meat and two veg", perhaps with stews and soups. The rationing of most foods during (and for some years after) World War II did little to assist the situation, though it did raise the average nutritional standards of the population to levels never previously achieved — from which they have since declined. However post-war population movements, foreign holidays and immigration to the UK led to the increasing absorption of influences from former colonies (e.g. India) and from Europe (particularly France and Italy). The books of Elizabeth David introduced many new recipes and ingredients from the Mediterranean. Italian American influence is now ubiquitous and pasta or pizza make a significant contribution to many diets. Berni Inns introduced the British public to prawn cocktail and steak, chips and peas, and Wimpy Bars did the same for the Hamburger. These trends are exemplified by the ubiquitous spaghetti bolognese (known colloquially as Spag Bol or Spag Bog) which has been a common family meal in Britain since at least the 1960s. More recently there has been a huge growth in the popularity of dishes like chicken tikka masala and lemon chicken, dishes with Indian and Chinese origins respectively, though modified to suit British tastes. Indeed, chicken tikka masala was first prepared in Britain rather than in India. The British curry, essentially a hangover from the days of the British Raj (and subsequently embellished by immigration), is far hotter and spicier than the traditional North Indian variety, though Indians from the southern provinces find it insipid. The post-war introduction of refrigeration, in parallel with the rise of the supermarket has led to the packaging of such foods into oven-ready meals which, often cooked by microwave oven, have now replaced "meat and two veg" in many homes. Consequently, British students attending university, living away from home for the first time but unable to afford ready meals (which tend to be rather expensive), can often be seen with a copy of a basic cookery book for beginners (usually a Delia) which includes such 'recipes' as 'boiled egg'.

Take-away food

egg The rise of the industrial revolution was also paralleled by the advent of take-away foods such as fish and chips, mushy peas, and steak and kidney pie with mashed potato (pie and mash). These were the staples of the UK take-away business for many years, though here too ethnic influences, particularly Indian and Chinese, have led to the introduction of ethnic take-away foods. From the 1980s onwards, a new variant on curry, the balti, began to become popular in the area around Birmingham, gradually spreading to other parts of the country. Kebab houses and American-style fried chicken hovels aiming at late night snacking have also become popular in urban areas.

New cuisine

The increasing popularity of celebrity chefs on television has fuelled a renewed awareness of good food and New British cuisine has shaken off much of the stodgy "fish and chips" image. The best London restaurants rival those anywhere in the world, in both quality and price, and this influence is starting to be felt in the rest of the country. There is even a wave of chefs struggling to retain the classic greatness of British country cooking, for example Fergus Henderson of the restaurant St. John in London. There has been a massive boom in restaurant numbers driven by a renewed interest in quality food, possibly due to the availability of cheap foreign travel. Organic produce is increasingly popular, especially following a spate of farming crises, including BSE. There has also been a quiet revolution in both quality and quantity of places to dine out in Britain, in particular, the humble Public House has been transformed in the last twenty or so years. Many have made the transition from eateries of poor reputation to rivals of the best restaurants, the so called Gastropub — very often they now are the best restaurants in smaller towns. The term "Pub Grub", once derogatory, can now be a sign of excellent value and quality dining. Some credit for this sea change has to go to CAMRA, for helping to improve the quality of pubs and their products in general, and some to the privatisation of breweries, which forced many pubs to diversify into dining in order to survive as a business, as well as a greater appreciation and demand among consumers.

Traditional cuisine

demand Despite the fast-food reputation, traditional British cuisine has survived, largely in the countryside and amongst the upper classes. The Sunday roast is perhaps the biggest culinary indication of a steadfastly traditional household. The Sunday dinner traditionally includes a Yorkshire pudding accompanying, or occasionally followed by, a joint of meat and assorted vegetables, themselves generally roast or boiled. The most common joints are beef, lamb or pork; chicken is also popular. Since its wide-spread availability after World War II the most popular Christmas roast is turkey. Game meats such as venison are traditionally the domain of the higher classes. Game, while being a classic English preserve, is not generally eaten in the average household. At home, the British have many original home-made desserts such as rhubarb crumble, bread and butter pudding, spotted dick and trifle. The traditional accompaniment is custard, known as crème anglaise (English sauce) to the French. The dishes are simple and traditional, with recipes passed on from generation to generation. The pudding tradition reaches its height with the Christmas pudding. At teatime, traditional British fare includes scones with butter, jam and clotted cream, as well as assorted biscuits and sandwiches. A unique sandwich filling is Marmite, a dark brown savoury spread made from yeast extract, with a tar-like texture and a strong, salty taste. A hand-made favourite is butterfly cake. Some schools teach young children how to bake such sweets during cookery lessons. Tea is consumed throughout the day and is sometimes drunk with meals, especially at teatime. Coffee is much less common than in continental Europe. However, coffee is rising in popularity (and quality), while tea, though still an essential part of British life, is less ubiquitous than it was. In more formal contexts wine is generally served. wine]] The full English breakfast (or "cooked breakfast") also remains a culinary classic. Somerset Maugham is quoted as saying "To eat well in England, you should have breakfast three times a day." Fortunately it need no longer be true. In the Victorian era, during the British Raj, Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes, creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, some of which is still eaten today although many once-popular Anglo-Indian dishes such as kedgeree have largely faded from the scene. Another formal British culinary tradition rarely observed today is the consumption of a savoury course, such as Welsh rarebit, toward the conclusion of a meal. Most main meals today end with a sweet dessert, although cheese and biscuits may be consumed as an alternative or as an addition.

Alcoholic drinks

Britons have developed alcoholic drinks like gin and whisky. For centuries, the British market was the main customer of sweet wines like sherry, Port wine, and Madeira wine. English wine has been available since the Roman era, but is generally considered poor; although in recent years, reflecting perhaps the improving palate of the British people, the quality of native wines has increased and in 2004 a panel judging European sparkling wines awarded most of the top ten positions to British wines - the remaining positions going to French Champagnes. British beer tends to be bitter, with domestic lager brands generally serving the lower end of the market. However, any establishment catering for the middle of the market will tend to have a range of continental-style lagers available; the Belgian-owned Stella Artois brand, for example, is one of the most common. Some such lagers are, despite their European origins, brewed under licence in the United Kingdom; others, such as Budvar from the Czech Republic, are imported. Many drinkers, however, consider bitter (and particularly that produced in relatively small quantities by the 'independent' British breweries, as opposed to those owned by large corporations) to be superior to lager, although with the increasing range of high-quality lagers available the strength of that opinion is weakening somewhat. Guinness and other Irish stouts are also common.

Vegetarianism

Since the end of World War II when their numbers were around 100,000, increasing numbers of the British population have adopted vegetarianism, especially since the BSE crisis of the 1990s. As of 2003 it was estimated that there were between 3 and 4 million vegetarians in the UK, one of the highest percentages in the western world, and around 7 million people claim to eat no red meat. It is rare not to find vegetarian foods in a supermarket or on a restaurant menu.

Lists

British food writers and celebrity chefs


- Eliza Acton
- "Mrs Beeton"
- Fanny Cradock
- Johnnie Cradock
- Elizabeth David
- Clarissa Dickson-Wright
- Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall
- Keith Floyd
- Jane Grigson
- Ainsley Harriott
- Graham Kerr
- Nigella Lawson
- Rustie Lee
- Jonathan Meades
- Jamie Oliver
- Gordon Ramsay
- Gary Rhodes
- Nigel Slater
- Delia Smith
- Rick Stein
- Antony Worrall Thompson

Examples of British cuisine

For fuller lists, see the British section of the list of recipes and :Category:British cuisine. For traditional foods protected under European law, see British Protected designation of origin. Savoury dishes
- Balti
- Bangers and mash (sausages and mashed potato)
- Black pudding
- Bubble and squeak
- Cornish pasty
- Cottage pie
- Dumplings
- Cheese
- Haggis (Scotland)
- Hash
- Fish and chips
- Lancashire Hotpot
- Laverbread (Wales)
- Pie and mash
- Pork pie
- Shepherd's pie
- Toad-in-the-hole
- Welsh rabbit
- Yorkshire pudding Sweet dishes
- Bread and butter pudding
- Christmas pudding
- Cranachan
- Dumplings
- Queen of Puddings
- Spotted dick

Meals

breakfast, elevenses, brunch, lunch, dinner, supper, dessert, Tea

Rationing

See the article on rationing in Britain during World War II (which started in World War II and for lasted for several years afterward)

References


- Hartley, Dorothy — Food in England, Macdonald, 1954; Little, Brown, 1996, ISBN 0-316-85205-8. This is a charmingly old-fashioned survey of the history of English food from prehistory to 1954, full of folk wisdom and recipes (not all practical).
- Mrs Beeton the most famous cookery writer in British history and author of Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management.

See also


- Cuisines of the World
- List of recipes
- UK topics

External links


- [http://web.archive.org/web/20030618084207/www.hwatson.force9.co.uk/ Archive of Helen's British Cooking site (no images)]
- [http://www.london-eating.co.uk/ London Restaurants Guide]
- [http://www.vegsoc.org/ UK Vegetarian Society]
- [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Cuisine_of_the_United_Kingdom Wikibooks: Cookbook:Cuisine of the United Kingdom]
- [http://abceda.com/eatold.htm Food in 1850s London]
- [http://www.sandwichguide.co.uk Sandwich Guide (UK)]
- [http://www.toptable.co.uk/ London Restaurants Booking and Guide] Category:British cuisine ja:イギリス料理

French toast

French toast is popular as a breakfast main course in North America and in parts of Europe. It is also popular in China. French toast is made with bread (generally pre-sliced) and eggs; some common additions are milk, water or orange juice to thin the eggs, sugar, and spices such as allspice, nutmeg, and cinnamon. Vanilla may also be added to the egg mixture. In restaurants in the United States, the bread is usually thick white bread made especially for use in French toast; when made at home, regular sliced bread is often used. Many people prefer to use breads that contain dried fruit as the bread base for French toast. Although considered by most to be a sweetly spiced dish, some prefer a savoury version, seasoned with salt and pepper instead.

Preparation

The eggs are scrambled (and mixed with other liquids, as described above) and poured into a wide, shallow bowl. Individual slices of bread are then dipped into the egg mixture and flipped, so both sides are evenly coated. If desired, the bread may be left to soak briefly to absorb more of the mixture; however, too much soaking will make the bread fall apart (which is why some cooks prefer to use bread that is closer to the end of its shelf-life). The slices of egg-coated bread are then placed on a frying pan or griddle previously coated with butter, and cooked until both sides are browned and the egg has cooked through. The cooked slices are usually served with butter and maple syrup, though it can also be served with fruit syrup, whipped cream, chocolate, powdered sugar, or nuts such as pecans.

Variations

When two slices of French toast are used to make a ham and cheese sandwich, this is known as Croque Monsieur; if served with a fried egg, Croque Madame. A sandwich made with ham, swiss cheese, and turkey is called a Monte Cristo sandwich. In China it is usually served with honey. In Hong Kong-style western restaurants (cha chaan tengs) and Hong Kong or Taiwanese dessert cafés, it may be served with butter and without a sweetening ingredient, and may be made out of a jam sandwich. French toast is usually served with the bread's crust, but it may be served without. It is called 西多士 (Cantonese IPA: ; Jyutping: sai1 do1 si2; Mandarin Pinyin: xīduōshì; literally "western toast", but actually an abbreviation of "法蘭西多士", "French toast") in Hong Kong, and 吐司 (Pinyin: Tùshī) in Taiwan.

History and geographical spread

The precise origins of the recipe are unknown, but similar dishes have existed in many countries and under many names. It is attested in Medieval Europe under the names:
  - England: suppe dorate
  - France: tostes dorées Modern versions occur in many countries under other names:
  - Denmark/Norway: arme riddere
  - England: poor knights of Windsor or eggy bread
  - France: ameritte or pain perdu (literally, "lost bread")
  - Germany: armer Ritter
  - Netherlands: wentelteefjes
  - Spain: torrija
  - Sweden: fattiga riddare
  - U.S.A.: German toast, Spanish toast, nun's toast
  - China, names as above
  - India: Bombay toast Some people claim that this dish was called "German toast" in the U.S.A. before World War I and was changed to "French toast" because of anti-German sentiment. A popular cookbook from 1918 does refer to it by that name. However, the term "French toast" can be found in print in the U.S.A. as early as 1871. The Oxford English Dictionary cites usages of "French toast" in English as early as 1660 (toasted bread with wine, orange juice, and sugar), and cites an egg-based recipe of the same name from 1882. It has also been called "American toast" in the U.S., where there is a story that it was invented in 1724 by a man named Joseph French in a roadside tavern near Albany, New York. In early 2003, the name of French toast was changed again to "freedom toast" in the White House, the U.S. Congress, and in a few U.S. restaurants, this time due to anti-French sentiment stemming from France's refusal to support a war in Iraq. (A similar renaming occurred with French fries, which were called freedom fries in those places. In reaction, the French embassy merely commented that French fries are, in fact, from Belgium.)

References


- Odilie Redon et al., The Medieval Kitchen: Recipes from France and Italy (Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998).
- John F. Mariani, The Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink (Lebhar-Friedman, New York, 1999).
- Craig Claiborne, Craig Claiborne's The New York Times Food Encyclopedia (Times Books, New York, 1985).
- Fannie Farmer, The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book (Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1918) [http://www.bartleby.com/87/]

External links


- [http://breakfast.cereal.com/french-toast.htm Fabulous French Toast Recipe]
- [http://www.realcajunrecipes.com/recipes/312.rcr Pain perdu (french toast) recipe at RealCajunRecipes.com] Category:Breakfast foods ja:フレンチトースト

Raisins

Raisins are dried grapes. Raisins can be eaten raw or used in cooking and baking. Raisins are very sweet due to the high concentration of their sugars, and if they are stored for a long period the sugar crystallises inside the fruit. This makes the fruit gritty, but does not affect the usability. To decrystalise raisins, they can be soaked in liquid (alcohol, fruit juice, or boiling water) for a short period, dissolving the sugar. In the United States, the term 'raisin' refers to any form of dried grape. California raisins – both the sun-dried dark naturals and the goldens – are made by drying Thompson Seedless grapes; dark naturals are sun dried, while goldens are treated with sulphur then flame dried. Another variety of seedless grape, the Black Corinth, is also sun dried to produce Zante currants, mini raisins that are much darker in colour and have a tart, tangy flavour. In Australia and other countries specific varieties are given separate names. In particular, in Australia raisins are largest, sultanas are intermediate, while currants are smallest. Alternately, sultanas are assumed to come from white/green grapes while raisins are believed to be produced from the red counterparts. Raisins are also produced in Greece especially in the areas of Peloponessus, Crete and smaller islands. The main variety used in the Greek raisin is the sultana. The grapes are mostly sun-dried thus producing seedless raisins of average size and golden color. A notable exception to this rule is the grape variety cultivated especially for the purpose of raisin production in Corinth that give darker and bigger type of raisin named Corinthian. Corinthian raisins are not seedless. The Victorian parlour game called Snap-dragon involved raisins being plucked from a bowl of burning brandy.

Nutritional Value

In a 1/4 cup serving of California raisins (40 grams), there is usually quite a bit of sugar (28-32 grams), contributing to around 110-140 calories. Also, a serving of raisins usually has 2 grams of fiber, as well as a very small amounts of protein (often 1 gram), sodium (usually around 10 milligrams), calcium, and iron. Raisins are high in potassium, with 310 milligrams (about 9% of the daily value).

Raisins and tooth decay

Dentists and Dental hygienists have long recommended not eating raisins as it was believed that the combination of sugars and stickiness in them would promote tooth decay and gum disease. Research indicates that the stickiness of a food is not an indicator of its effects on oral health. Raisins have been found to contain several chemical compounds that may assist in fighting oral bacteria. In a laboratory, extracts from raisins were found to slow the growth of Streptococcus mutans, the main bacteria behind tooth decay. Five chemicals in raisins — oleanolic acid, oleanolic aldehyde, betulin, betulinic acid, and 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfural — seem to be responsible for slowing the bacteria. In addition, oleanic acid prevents S. mutans from sticking to tooth enamel. (Wu, et al., 2005)

References


- [http://www.abstractsonline.com/viewer/viewAbstractPrintFriendly.asp?CKey=&SKey=&MKey=&AKey= Abstract]

External links


- Category:Fruit ja:レーズン

Milk

:For other senses of this word, see milk (disambiguation). milk (disambiguation) Milk most often means the nutrient fluid produced by the mammary glands of female mammals. It provides the primary source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to digest more diverse foods. It is also processed into dairy products such as cream, butter, yoghurt, ice-cream, gelato, cheese, casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additive and industrial products. It can also be used to mean
- the white juice and the processed meat of the coconut in, more or less, liquid form, used especially in Thai, Indian (Kerala), and Polynesian cuisine.
- a non-animal substitute such as soya milk, rice milk, and almond milk. Human milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, either directly or by the female expressing her milk to be saved and fed later. The early lactation milk is known as colostrum, and carries the mother's antibodies to the baby. It can reduce the risk of many diseases in both mother and baby.

Composition and nutrition

The composition of milk differs widely from species to species and a little within species. Factors such as the lactose content, the proportion of and size of the butterfat globule, and the strength of the curd (formed by the human enzymes digesting the milk) can differ from breed to breed and mammal to mammal. For example:
- Human breast milk is thin and high in lactose, its primary sugar.
- Cow's milk is lower in sugar and higher in protein, and is composed of about 3.5% to 6.5% milkfat, 4% to 8.5% milk solids and about 88% water. Its main protein (80%) is casein, while whey proteins make up most of the rest. The nutritional makeup of cow's milk is much different from human milk. One cup of human milk has 70% less protein, 38% more fat, and 47% more carbohydrates than cow's milk. Vitamin C, folic acid, sodium, iron and calcium levels also differ significantly. Lactose in milk is digested with the help of the enzyme lactase produced by the bodies of infants. In humans, production of lactase falls off towards adulthood, leading to an inability to digest milk; this is known as lactose intolerance. Some human populations (most notably Europeans) retain the ability to digest lactose into adulthood. Whole cow's milk has approximately 634 Calories (2650kJ) per litre.

Cow's milk

In the western world cow's milk is most often extracted on an industrial scale for human consumption and industrial uses. It is the most commonly consumed form of milk. Dairy farming has become such a large business that in many countries the process is highly automated; with farmers using machines that attach directly to the teats of the cow's udder to speed milking, and breeds of cattle, such as Holstein, specially bred for increased milk production.

Commercial processing of milk

Holstein In North America a dairy facility processes milk and products obtained from milk (dairy products), such as cream, butter, cheese, and so on. Most dairies are local companies, as opposed to large or nationwide companies found in the southern hemisphere. Upon standing, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, skim-milk layer. The cream is often sold as a separate product with its own uses. In the United States, a blended mixture of half cream and half milk is often sold in smaller quantities and is called half and half. Half and half is used for creaming coffee and similar uses. Milk produced for commercial consumption usually undergoes several processes. Pasteurization kills many harmful micro-organisms by heating the milk for a short time and then cooling it for storage and transportation. Pasteurized milk is still perishable and must be stored cold by both suppliers and consumers. Dairies print expiration dates on each container, after which stores will remove any unsold milk from their shelves. In many countries it is illegal to sell milk that is not pasteurized. A complementary process for commercial milk is homogenization, which produces milk in a single phase (or layer). This is accomplished by mechanically reducing the fat globules to a size that stabilizes them in solution. Milk, sold commercially in countries where the cattle (and often the people) live indoors, commonly has vitamin D added to it to make up for lack of exposure to UVB radiation. Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales. Chocolate-flavored milk has been sold for many years, followed recently by other flavors of milk and cream. South Australia has the highest consumption of flavoured milk per person, where Farmers Union Iced Coffee outsells Coca-Cola, a success shared only by Inca Kola in Peru and Irn-Bru in Scotland.

Support

Cow's milk is a generally healthy source of protein and calcium in human diets. It is also a good source of a number of vitamins. A serving (1 cup or 250 ml) of 2%-fat milk contains 285 mg of calcium, which represents 22% to 29% of the daily recommended intake (DRI) of calcium for an adult, depending on the age, 8 grams of protein, and a number of other nutrients (either naturally or through fortification):
- Vitamins D and K - essential for bone health
- Iodine - a mineral essential for thyroid function
- Vitamin B12 and Riboflavin - necessary for cardiovascular health and energy production
- Biotin and Pantothenic Acid - B vitamins important for energy production
- Vitamin A - critical for immune function
- Potassium and Magnesium - for cardiovascular health
- Selenium - cancer-preventive trace mineral
- Thiamin - B-vitamin important for cognitive function, especially memory
- Conjugated Linoleic Acid - beneficial fatty acid that inhibits several types of cancer in mice, has been shown to kill human skin cancer, colorectal cancer and breast cancer cells in in vitro studies, and may help lower cholesterol and prevent atherosclerosis; only available in milk from grass-fed cows Milk supporters point out that studies show possible links between low-fat milk consumption and reduced risk of arterial hypertension, coronary heart disease, and obesity. Overweight individuals who drink milk may benefit from decreased risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. [http://www.nationaldairycouncil.org/NationalDairyCouncil/Nutrition/Reducing/DairysRoleManagingBP.htm]

Criticism

Cow's milk is also argued to be unhealthy primarily due to its fat and cholesterol content, as well as the toxicity of its protein. The following studies are used to support this position:
- The pasteurization process for raw milk kills most, if not all, resident micro-organisms (including beneficial ones that aid in its digestion and metabolization) and many nutritional constituents. The resulting pasteurized product causes digestive problems, is less nutritional and turns rancid (as opposed to souring) when aging. [http://www.realmilk.com/rawvpasteur.html Raw Milk Versus Pasteurized Milk]
- Some milk is rich in saturated fat, which studies have linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Low-fat and non-fat forms of milk may mitigate any such risk.
- Up to 70% of humans have an incomplete ability to digest milk, lactose intolerance. For those individuals, milk may induce symptoms such as cramping, bloating, gas, and diarrhoea. Certain ethnic groups may be more susceptible to these effects.
- Critics dispute the claim that drinking large amounts of milk can reduce the risk of bone fractures, especially in the elderly. Studies have failed to associate high calcium intakes with lower risk of hip and forearm fractures in men[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9278560] or women[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9224182].
- Critics of milk claim that plant-based sources of calcium are preferable, on the grounds that animal proteins in milk causes leaching or excretion of calcium from bones.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8198060] Such critics refute the claim that milk prevents osteoporosis and make the counterclaim that milk, in fact, contributes to that disease.
- A study published in June 2005 suggests that consumption of milk by 9- to 14-year-old children is associated with weight gain, although the researchers identify that excessive calorie intake is the cause rather than dairy specific factors. Researchers were surprised by their conclusion that weight gain was associated with dietary calcium and low-fat or skim milk, but not dairy fat.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15939853]
- A February 2005 study found a positive association between acne and the consumption of whole milk, skim milk, and other dairy products in high-school-age women.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15692464].
- Critics also make the claim that the protein content of cow’s milk can act to block the absorption of calcium and cause the human body to produce antibodies that are believed to damage the pancreas, leading to the development of type 1 diabetes.
- In children, cow’s milk consumption has allegedly been linked to anemia, colic, allergies, and asthma. In adults, cow's milk consumption has been related to breast cancer.
- Two studies show a correlation between high galactose consumption, and high rates of ovarian cancer. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=2510499][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=2567871]
- A study suggests a correlation between high calcium intake and prostate cancer.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9458087]. There is no evidence that any such problem is specific to milk. A review published by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research states that at least 11 human population studies have linked dairy product consumption and prostate cancer.
- Scientific evidence has also been unable to support the claim that the consumption of cow’s milk as a source of calcium reduces the risk of osteoporosis. On the contrary, epidemiological research has linked the countries with the highest dairy consumption rates (for example, the United States, Sweden and Finland) to the incidence of osteoporosis. But no studies have shown the same in New Zealand, which has the highest per capita consumption.
- The A1 β-casein in cow's milk has been reportedly linked to ischaemic heart disease, type I diabetes, and to a lesser extent, schizophrenia and autism. Some milk contains higher levels of the A2 β-casein, which has been claimed to not lead to these diseases. Milk with the "A2 milk" trademark has been tested to be high in the A2 β-casein.

Distribution

A2 milk A2 milk milk]] Because of the perishable nature of milk, expeditious distribution is desirable. Milk used to be delivered to households daily, but this is no longer economically feasible. People buy it chilled at grocery or convenience stores or similar retail outlets. Prior to the widespread use of plastics, milk was often distributed to consumers in glass bottles, and before that in bulk that was ladled into the customer's container. In the UK, milk can be delivered daily by a milk man who travels his local milk round (route) using a battery-powered milk float, although this is becoming less popular as a result of supermarkets selling milk at cheaper prices. New Zealand was possibly the last country to distribute milk in glass bottles. As of November 30, 2005, New Zealand Dairy Foods will cease to produce bottled milk at their Christchurch factory. In the United States bottles were replaced with milk cartons, tall boxes with a square cross-section and a peaked top that can folded outward upon opening to form a spout. Now milk is increasingly sold in plastic bottles. First the gallon and half-gallon sizes were sold in plastic jugs while the smaller sizes were sold in milk cartons. Recently milk has been sold in smaller bottles made to fit in automobile cup holders. The half-pint milk carton is the traditional unit as a component of school lunches. Pictures of missing children were printed on milk cartons as a public service until it was determined that this was disturbing children. Milk preserved by the UHT process is sold in boxes often called a "brick" that lack the peak of the traditional milk carton. Glass containers are rare these days. Most people purchase milk in plastic jugs or bags or in waxed-paper cartons. Ultraviolet light from fluorescent lighting can destroy some of the proteins in milk so many companies, that once distributed milk in transparent or highly translucent containers, are using thicker materials that block the harmful rays. Many people feel that such "UV protected" milk tastes better. In the United States, milk is commonly sold in gallon, half-gallon and quart containers (U.S. customary units) of rigid plastic or waxed cardboard. The US single-serving size is usually the half-pint (about 500 ml). In Canada, a 1 1/3 litre plastic bag (sold as 4 litres in 3 bags) is the most common, while 2 litre, 1 litre, 500 millilitre, and 250 millilitre cartons are also available. In Europe, sizes of 500 millilitres, 1 litre (the most common), 2 litres and 3 litres are commonplace (in the UK, some stores still stock the equivalents of old Imperial sizes: 568 ml (1 pint), 1.136 l (2 pints), 2.273 l (4 pints) or, rarely, a combination including both metric and imperial sizes). In Australia and New Zealand a 250 ml cardboard container of flavoured milk is marketed as a common breakfast meal. For refrigerator use milk comes in 1, 2 and 3 litre plastic screw-top bottles. Most UHT-milk is packed in 1 litre paper containers with a sealed plastic spout. Condensed milk is distributed in metal cans, 250 and 125 ml paper containers and 100 and 200 ml squeeze tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is distributed in boxes or bags.

Varieties and brands

Cow's milk is generally available in several varieties. In some countries these are:
- full cream (or "whole" in North America, about 3.25% fat)
- semi-skimmed ("reduced fat" or "low fat", about 1.5-1.8% fat)
- skimmed (about 0.1% fat) Milk in the U.S. and Canada is sold as
- "whole" varieties
- "2 percent" (reduced fat)
- "1 percent" (low fat)
- "1/2 percent" (low fat)
- "skim" (very low fat) Note: In Canada "whole" milk refers to unhomogenized milk. "Homogenized" milk (or "Homo milk" in short) refers to milk which is 3.25% butterfat. Generally all store-bought milk in Canada has been homogenized, yet the term is also used as a name to describe butterfat content for a specific variety of milk. Modern commercial dairy processing techniques involve first removing all of the butterfat, and then adding back the appropriate amount depending on which product is being produced on that particular line. In Britain, it is possible to get Channel Island milk, which is 5.5% fat. In the United States, skim milk is also known as "fat free" milk, due to USDA regulations stating that any food with less than 1/2 gram of fat per serving can be labeled "fat free". Full cream, or whole milk, has the full milk fat content (about 3-4% if Friesian- or Holstein-breed are the source). For skimmed or semi-skimmed milk, all of the fat content is removed and then some (in the case of semi-skimmed milk) is returned. The best-selling variety of milk is semi-skimmed; in some countries full-cream (whole) milk is generally seen as less healthy and skimmed milk is often thought to lack taste. Whole milk is recommended to provide sufficient fat for developing toddlers who have graduated from breast milk or infant formula.

Other milk animals

In addition to cows, the following animals provide milk for dairy products:
- Humans
- Sheep
- Goats
- Horses
- Donkeys
- Camels (Including the South American camelids)
- Yaks
- Water buffalo
- Reindeer In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/06/23/sweden.moosecheese.ap/index.html]. Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while the milk of seals contains more than 50% fat. [http://www.havemilk.com/article.asp?id=1485#contentbyspecies]

Curdling

When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns sour. This is the result of fermentation: lactic acid bacteria turning the milk sugar into lactic acid. This fermentation process is exploited in the production of various dairy products such as cheese and yogurt. Pasteurized cow's milk, on the other hand, spoils in a way that makes it unsuitable for consumption, causing it to assume an unpleasant odor and pose a high danger of food poisoning if ingested. The naturally-occurring lactic acid bacteria in raw milk, under suitable conditions, quickly produce large amounts of lactic acid. The ensuing acidity in turn prevents other germs from growing, or slows their growth significantly. Through pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed, which means that other germs can grow unfettered and thus cause decomposition. In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept refrigerated and stored between 1 and 4 degrees Celsius. Most milk is Pasteurized by heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport from factory farms to local markets. The spoilage of milk can be forestalled by using ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment; milk so treated can be stored unrefrigerated for several months until opened. Sterilized milk, which is heated for a much longer period of time, will last even longer, but also lose more nutrients and assume a still different taste. Condensed Milk, made by removing most of the water, can be stored for many months, unrefrigerated. The most durable form of milk is milk powder which is produced from milk by removing almost all water.

See also


- Almond milk
- Bovine somatotropin
- Babcock test - determines the butterfat content of milk.
- Dairy
- Grain milk
- Milk fetishism
- Rice milk
- Soy milk
- Milk bottle

External links


- [http://www.pukeariki.com/en/stories/farming/milkingintheearlydays.asp Milking in the early days]
- [http://www.pukeariki.com/en/stories/farming/elthamfirsts.asp Advances in processing milk]
- [http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/gbdairy.html Year-round grazing of dairy cows in the United States]
- [http://www.milkismilk.com Milk is Milk Web site and blog]
- [http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/mar03/osteo0303.htm Boning Up on Osteoporosis]
- [http://www.drafthorsejournal.com/features/horsemilk/horsemilk.htm Horse milk]
- [http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/calcium.html Harvard School of Public Health: Calcium and Milk]: describes claims of milk supporters and critics
- [http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR17/wtrank/sr17w301.pdf USDA National Nutrient Database, Calcium contents of selected foods]
- [http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/294/0.pdf USDA Dietary Reference Intakes: Elements]
- [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/030321.html Is cow's milk "the worst beverage on earth?"] - straightdope.com response to anti-milk websites.
- [http://beauty.about.com/od/bathmilk/ Bath Milk] (About.com), milk used for bathing
- [http://www.milksucks.com MilkSucks.Com] - a site run by PETA extolling the benefits of going Dairy-free Category:Beverages Category:Non-alcoholic drink Category:Dairy products
- Category:Materials involved in Hinduism ko:우유 ia:Lacte] [[id:Susu]] [[io:Lakto ja:乳 simple:Milk th:นม

Vanilla

:For other uses, see vanilla (disambiguation). Vanilla is a flavoring, in its pure form known as vanillin, derived from orchids in the genus Vanilla. The name came from the Spanish word "vainilla", diminutive form of "vaina" (meaning "sheath"), which is in turn derived from Latin "vagina".

The vanilla plants and their pollination

:See Vanilla (orchid) for more information on the plants in their natural habitat. Vanilla (orchid)] The main species harvested for vanillin is Vanilla planifolia. It is a native of Mexico, though now widely grown throughout the tropics. Madagascar is the world's largest producer. Additional sources include Vanilla pompona and Vanilla tahitiensis (grown in Tahiti). Vanilla is a vine: it grows by climbing over some existing tree, pole, or other support. It can be grown in a wood (on trees), in a plantation (on trees or poles; possibly alternating with rows of sugar cane), or in a "shader", in increasing orders of productivity. If left alone, it will grow as high as possible on the support; every year, growers fold the higher parts of the plant downwards so that the plant stays at heights accessible by a standing human. The part of the plant in which the distinctive flavory compounds are found is the fruit, resulting from the pollination of the flower. One flower produces one fruit. Vanilla planifolia flowers are hermaphrodite: they carry both male (anther) and female (stigma) organs; however, to avoid self-pollination(which would tend to result in genetic deficiencies), a membrane separates those organs. Such flowers may only be naturally pollenized by a specific bee found in Mexico. Growers have tried to bring this bee into other growing locales, to no avail. The only way to produce fruits is thus artificial pollination. A simple and efficient artificial pollination method was introduced in 1841 by a 12 year-old slave named Edmond Albius on Réunion, then a French colony, in the Indian Ocean. This method is still used today. Using a needle, an agricultural worker folds back the membrane separating the anther and the stigma, then presses the anther on the stigma. The flower is then self-pollinated, and will produce a fruit. The vanilla flower lasts about one day, sometimes less, thus growers have to inspect their plantations every day for open flowers, a human-intensive task. The fruit (a bean), if left on the plant, will ripen and open at the end; it will then exhaust the distinctive vanilla smell. The fruit contains tiny black seeds, which, in ripe fruits, carry the vanilla flavour. These black seeds are the tiny black "dust" one may find in dishes prepared with whole natural vanilla. Vanilla planifolia seeds will not germinate in normal ground; they need a certain symbiotic mushroom. Growers reproduce the plant by cutting: they cut off parts of the plants, plant them in the ground and wait for them to grow new roots.

Preparation

Indian Ocean Green (unripe) fruits do not have the distinctive vanilla smell or taste. Ripe fruits have it, but they are open, leak their innards, and cannot be conserved. There is thus a need to prepare green fruits in order to obtain the vanilla taste without the fruit opening or risking deterioration. The production process introduced on Réunion island in the 19th century is as follows: # The beans are heated up (65°C for 3 minutes). This kills them and stops their natural processes. # After being shortly dried of dampness, the beans are stored in wooden boxes with blankets for 4 months. They then get a deep brown colour. # The beans are dried, using an oven or the Sun. They have to be sorted (by hand) periodically: beans still not sufficiently dry continue drying; but beans excessively dried are unusable. # The beans are sorted by category. The largest, well formed beans are kept to be sold whole. The broken, smallest etc. ones are for being turned into vanilla extract or powder. # The beans are left to mature for about 8 months in wooden boxes. They have to be periodically inspected for rot (or dampness, which may result in rot). At the end of this process, they acquire the distinctive vanilla taste. The whole preparation process is, as pollination, rather human intensive. The weight of matured vanilla at the end of the process is approximately one fourth of that of the green vanilla beans used at the beginning. In some regions producing vanilla, such as Réunion Island, some unscrupulous merchants sell "big" (wide, fat) vanilla beans to tourists; these beans are unmatured vanilla, thus don't have the vanilla taste, and are not usable for cuisine without a lengthy preparation.

History

Vanilla was a highly regarded flavoring in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and was brought back to Europe (and from there the rest of the world) by the Spanish Conquistadors. In ancient Mexico the Totonac people were regarded as the producers of the best vanilla. They continued to be the world's chief producers of the flavoring through the mid 19th century. At that time, French vanilla growers in Mexico traded their knowledge of artificial pollination of flowers for the Totonac knowledge of preparing the beans. The Coca-Cola Corporation is the world's largest customer of natural vanilla extract. When New Coke was introduced in 1985, the economy of Madagascar crashed, and only recovered after New Coke flopped. The reason was that New Coke used vanillin, a less expensive synthetic substitute, and purchases of vanilla more than halved during this period. By 2002, the company introduced Vanilla Coke, which is Coca-Cola with higher concentrations of vanilla flavor. The market price of vanilla rose dramatically in the late 1970s due to a typhoon. Prices stayed stable at this level through the early 1980s due to the pressure of recently introduced Indonesian vanilla. In the mid 1980s the cartel that had controlled vanilla prices and distribution since its creation in 1930 disbanded. Prices dropped 70% over the next few years to nearly $20 USD per kilo. This changed due to typhoon Huddah, which struck early in the year 2000. The typhoon, political instability, and poor weather in the third year drove vanilla prices to an astonishing $500 USD per kilo in 2004. A good crop coupled with decreased demand have pushed the market price down to the $40 per kilo range in the middle of 2005.

Chemistry

For the main article on chemistry, see vanillin. Though there are many compounds present in the extracts of vanilla, the compound predominantly responsible for the characteristic flavor and smell of vanilla is known as vanillin.thumb Vanilla essence comes in two forms: the actual extract of the seedpods, and the far cheaper synthetic essence, basically consisting of a solution of synthetic vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde). Natural vanilla is an extremely complicated mixture of several hundred different compounds, versus synthetic vanillin which is derived from phenol and is of high purity. However, it may be difficult to determine the difference between natural and synthetic vanilla flavoring.

Uses

There are three main commercial presentations of natural vanilla:
- Whole beans
- Powder
- Extract (alcoholic solution; per FDA requirements, at least 35% vol. of alcohol) Vanilla flavor in creams, cakes and other foodstuff may be achieved by adding some vanilla essence or by cooking vanilla beans in the liquid preparation. A stronger aroma may be attained if the beans are split in two; in this case, the innards of the beans (the seeds), consisting of flavorful tiny black grains, are mixed into the preparation. Natural vanilla gives a brownish to yellowish colour to preparations, depending on concentration. Good quality vanilla has a strong aromatic flavour, but foodstuffs with small amounts of low quality vanilla or artificial vanilla-like flavorings are far more common, since true vanilla is much more expensive. One major use of vanilla is in flavoring ice cream: the most common flavour of ice cream is vanilla, and thus most people consider it to be the "default" flavor. By analogy, the term "plain vanilla" or just "vanilla" is used as a synonym for "plain". In old medicinal literature, vanilla is described as an aphrodisiac and a remedy for fevers, but these purported uses are now obsolete.

Specific types of vanilla

"Bourbon vanilla" is the term used for vanilla coming from Indian Ocean islands such as Madagascar, Comoros, and Réunion, which was the name of the Bourbon island when artificial pollination was discovered. Some people regard the vanilla produced on Réunion Island as the best quality. Some connoisseurs still regard the Totonac vanilla as the best. It is sometimes marketed in gourmet food stores as "Mexican vanilla", although Mexico also produces low-quality vanilla that sometimes shares this label. The term French vanilla is often used to designate preparations that actually have a strong vanilla aroma, and possibly contain vanilla grains, but originates from the French style of making ice cream custard base with vanilla beans, cream, and egg yolks. Image:Vanilla plantation dsc01187.jpg|A vanilla plantation in open field on Réunion. Note that growers "fold" the plant up and down so that the vine extends to manageable height. Image:Vanilla plantation in shader dsc01168.jpg|A vanilla plantation in a "shader" (ombrière) on Réunion. Image:Vanilla_planifolia_1.jpg|Flower Image:Vanilla fragrans 2.jpg|Green fruits

External links


- [http://www.kew.org/epic/index.htm Electronic Plant Information Centre at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2003-11-8] Category:Phenol aldehydesCategory:Phenol ethersCategory:Spices
- [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=169.175 FDA Requirements for Vanilla Extract]
- [http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=27 Spices at UCLA History & Special Collections]
- [http://www.fantastic-flavours.com/ Vanilla Extract comparisons] ja:%E3%83%90%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A9 Category:Totonac

Whisky

Whisky (or whiskey) is an alcoholic beverage distilled from grain, often including malt, which has then been aged in wooden barrels.

Spelling

The spelling whisky (plural whiskies) is generally used for those distilled in Scotland, Canada, and Japan, while whiskey (with an e; plural whiskeys) is used for the spirits distilled in Ireland and the United States; however, there are exceptions. Kentucky, for example, usually spells its produce "whisky". A mnemonic used to remember which spelling is used is that "Ireland" and "United States" have at least one "e" in their names, while "Scotland," "Canada" and "Japan" do not. International law reserves the term "Scotch whisky" to those whiskies produced in Scotland; whiskies produced in other countries in the Scotch style must use another name. Similar conventions exist for "Irish whiskey," "Canadian whisky," and "Bourbon Whiskey." In North America, the abbreviated term "Scotch" is usually used for "Scotch Whisky." In England, Scotland, and Wales, the term "Whisky" almost always refers to "Scotch Whisky", and the term "Scotch" is rarely used by itself. The Welsh version is wysgi. The name is derived from Gaelic uisge beatha (water of life). (Other countries also have their own "water of life": see the Scandinavian Akvavit or Italian Grappa, whose name derives from the Latin aqua vitae.) Irish whiskey is typically distilled three times from a mash of several grains. Scottish whisky is typically distilled twice, either from barley malt alone (see single malt whisky), or from barley malts and other grain malts which are then mixed together. Kentucky whisky, called Bourbon, is normally only distilled once, as are most other American and Canadian whiskeys.

Characteristics

Bourbon Whisky is drunk straight, with water or ice, or mixed with other spirits or drinks (such as "Rye & Coke" or "Rye & Ginger"). Whisky is sold in several styles. Malt whisky consists of whisky made from 100 percent malted barley, whereas malt whisky from one distillery, rather than blended, is called single malt. The grains used to make malt whisky include barley in Ireland, Scotland, Canada, and the United States, rye in Canada and the United States, and corn in the United States. Pure pot still whiskey is made in Ireland from a combination of malted and unmalted barley. Various types of straight whiskey, such as Rye whiskey, Tennessee whiskey, and Bourbon whiskey which are produced in the U.S. are aged in charred, oak barrels. Blended whisky is made from a combination of any of the above whiskies with the similar grain whisky or neutral grain spirits, which are much less expensive to produce than the other types of whisky. Blends will almost always identify the type of base whisky used, ie. blended Scotch, blended Canadian, or blended Bourbon. Light whiskey is a style of American whiskey made up almost entirely of neutral grain spirits, with small amounts (typically less than 5 - 10 percent total volume) of straight whiskey and sherry added for flavor and coloring. At one time much of the whiskey produced in the U.S. was "Bottled-in-Bond" according to the dictates of an [1898] Act of Congress; this practice has been largely discontinued, because one of the requirements of the Act was that such whiskey be produced at 100 U.S. alcoholic proof (50% alcohol by volume). Whiskey this potent is rare in the U.S. anymore, partially because of changing public tastes but also because an alcoholic content so high is illegal in many countries, limiting the export market for it.

See also

alcoholic proof
- Bourbon whiskey
- Canadian whisky
- Corn whiskey
- Irish whiskey
- Moonshine
- Rye whisky
- Scotch whisky
- Tennessee whiskey
- Welsh whisky
- List of whisky brands
- American Whiskey Trail

Whiskey-based drinks


- List of cocktails

See also


- American Whiskey Trail

External links


- [http://www.thewhiskyguide.com/ The Whisky Guide]
- [http://www.whiskymag.com/ Whisky Magazine]
- [http://www.whisky-distilleries.info/ Scotch Whisky and distilleries]

Other Concepts

Whiskey is also the letter W in the NATO phonetic alphabet.
- Category:Alcoholic beverages Category:Distilled beverages Category:Scottish society Category:Economy of Scotland Category:Scottish cuisine Category:Scottish cultural icons ko:위스키 ja:ウイスキー

Fruit

In botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary—together with seeds—of a flowering plant. In many species, the fruit incorporates the ripened ovary and surrounding tissues. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds. Evolution has led plants to adopt certain basic mechanisms, seemingly without close regard to the tissues involved. No one terminology really fits the enormous variety that is found among plant fruits. Botanical terminology for fruits is inexact and will remain so. In cuisine, when discussing fruit as food, the term usually refers to just those plant fruits that are sweet and fleshy, examples of which include plum, apple and orange. However, a great many common vegetables, as well as nuts and grains, are the fruit of the plant species they come from. The term false fruit (pseudocarp, accessory fruit) is sometimes applied to a fruit like the fig (a multiple-accessory fruit; see below) or to a plant structure that resembles a fruit but is not derived from a flower or flowers. Some gymnosperms, such as yew, have fleshy arils that resemble fruits and some junipers have berry-like, fleshy cones. With most fruits pollination is a vital part of fruit culture, and the lack of knowledge of pollinators and pollenizers can contribute to poor crops or poor quality crops. In a few species, the fruit may develop in the absence of pollination/fertilization, a process known as parthenocarpy. Such fruits are seedless. A plant that does not produce fruit is known as acarpous, meaning essentially "without fruit".

Botanic fruits and culinary fruits

Many foods are botanically a fruit, but are treated as vegetables in cooking. These include cucurbits (e.g. squash and pumpkin), maize, tomatoes, cucumber, aubergines (eggplants) and green peppers, along with nuts, and some spices, such as allspice, nutmeg and chiles. Rarely, culinary "fruits" are not fruits in the botanical sense. For example, rhubarb may be considered a fruit, though only the astringent stalk, or petiole, is edible. In the commercial world, European Union rules define carrot as a fruit for the purposes of measuring the proportion of "fruit" contained in carrot jam.

Fruit development

After an ovule is fertilized in a process known as pollination, the ovary begins to expand. The petals of the flower fall off and the ovule develops into a seed. The ovary eventually comes to form, along with other parts of the flower in many cases, a structure surrounding the seed or seeds that is the fruit. Fruit development continues until the seeds have matured. With some multiseeded fruits the extent of development of the flesh of the fruit is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The wall of the fruit, developed from the ovary wall of the flower, is called the pericarp. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp (outer layer - also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. Fruits are so varied in form and development, that it is difficult to devise a classification scheme that includes all known fruits. It will also be seen that many common terms for seeds and fruit are incorrectly applied, a fact that complicates understanding of the terminology. Seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovularies or carpels that contain the seeds. To these two basic definitions can be added the clarification that in botanical terminology, a nut is a type of fruit and not another term for seed. There are three basic types of fruits: # Simple fruit # Aggregate fruit # Multiple fruit

Simple fruit

Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary with only one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent (opening to discharge seeds), or indehiscent (not opening to discharge seeds). Types of dry, simple fruits (with examples) are:
- achene - (buttercup)
- capsule - (Brazil nut)
- caryopsis - (wheat)
- fibrous drupe - (coconut, walnut)
- follicle - (milkweed)
- legume - (pea, bean, peanut)
- loment
- nut - (hazelnut, beech, oak acorn)
- samara - (elm, ash, maple key)
- schizocarp - (carrot)
- silique - (radish)
- utricle Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are simple fleshy fruits. Types of fleshy, simple fruits (with examples) are:
- berry - (tomato, avocado)
- drupe - (plum, cherry, peach, olive)
- false berry - accessory fruits (banana, cranberry)
- pome - accessory fruits (apple, pear, rosehip)

Aggregate fruit

rosehip An aggregate fruit, or etaerio, develops from a flower with numerous simple pistils. An example is the raspberry, whose simple fruits are termed drupelets because each is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits (such as blackberry) the receptacle is elongate and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit. The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are contained in achenes. In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils.

Multiple fruit

A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple, edible fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit. breadfruit In the photograph on the right, stages of flowering and fruit development in the noni or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia) can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a head is produced. After fertilization, each flower develops into a drupe, and as the drupes expand, they connate (merge) into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarp.

Seedless Fruits

Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are seedless. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially navel oranges and mandarin oranges), table grapes, grapefruit, and watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination. Most seedless citrus fruits require a pollination stimulus; bananas and pineapples do not. Seedlessness in table grapes results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy which requires normal pollination and fertilization.

Seed dissemination

Variations in fruit structures largely relate to dissemination (called dispersal) of the seeds they contain. Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent themselves from being eaten by animals or to stick to the hairs of animals, using them as dispersal agents. Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like wings or helicopter blades. This is an evolutionary mechanism to increase dispersal distance away from the parent.

Uses

Many fruits, including fleshy fruits like apple and mango, and nuts like walnut, are commercially valuable as human food, eaten both fresh and made into jams, marmalade and other preserves for future consumption. Fruits are also found commonly in such manufactured foods as cookies, muffins, yoghurt, ice cream, cakes, and many more.

See also


- List of fruits
- Fruit trees
- Tutti frutti
- Fruitarianism types00 Category: botany Category: plant morphology ko:열매 ja:果物 simple:Fruit zh-min-nan:Kóe-chí

Croissant

A croissant (IPA: [] , anglicised variously as IPA: , , etc.) is a butter-laden flaky French pastry, named for its distinctive crescent shape. Croissants are made of a leavened variant of puff pastry by layering yeast dough with butter and rolling and folding a few times in succession, then rolling. Making croissants by hand requires skill and patience, but the development of factory-made, frozen, pre-formed but unbaked dough has made them into a fast food which can be freshly baked by unskilled labor. Indeed, the croissanterie was explicitly a French response to American fast food. This innovation, along with the croissant's versatility and distinctive shape, has made it the best-known type of French pastry in much of the world. In many parts of the United States, for example, the croissant (introduced at the fast food chains Arby's in the United States and Tim Hortons in Canada in 1983) has come to rival the long-time favorite doughnuts. Croissant pastry can also be wrapped around almond paste or chocolate before it is baked (in the latter case, it becomes like pain au chocolat, which has a different, non crescent, shape), or sliced to admit sweet or savoury fillings. In France, croissants are generally sold without filling and eaten without added butter, and sometimes with almond filling. In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are common, or warm croissants are filled with ham and cheese or feta cheese and spinach.

Etymology

Fanciful stories of how the pastry was created are modern culinary legends. These include tales that it was invented in Vienna in 1683 to celebrate the defeat of the Turkish siege of the city, as a reference to the crescents on the Turkish flags, when bakers staying up all night heard the tunneling operation and gave the alarm; tales linking croissants with the kifli and the siege of Bucharest in 1686; and those detailing Marie Antoinette's hankering after a Viennese specialty. Alan Davidson, editor of the Oxford Companion to Food states that no printed recipe for the present-day croissant appears in any French recipe book before the early 20th century; the earliest French reference to a croissant he found was among the "fantasy or luxury breads" in Payen's Des substances alimentaires, 1853. The "Siege of Vienna" story seems to owe its wide diffusion to Alfred Gottschalk, who wrote about the croissant for the first (1938) edition of the Larousse Gastronomique. Gottschalk first cited the legend about the Turkish attack on Budapest in 1686, in the "history of food" section in the same work, he opted for the "siege of Vienna in 1683" version. Compare the Cappuccino legend.

External link


- [http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodbreads.html#croissants Food Timeline:] croissants
- [http://www.baking911.com/pastry_croissants.htm Pastry 101: croissants] Category:Breakfast foods Category:Pastry ja:クロワッサン

Bread pudding

Bread pudding is a dessert popular in British cuisine and that of the Southeast U.S., made using stale (usually left-over) bread, suet, egg, sugar or golden syrup, spices, and dried fruit. The bread is soaked (often overnight), squeezed dry, and mixed with the other ingredients. The mixture is transferred into a dish and baked. It may be served with a sweet sauce of some sort, such as whiskey sauce, rum sauce, or caramel sauce, but is typically sprinkled with sugar and eaten cold in squares or slices. Bread pudding should not be confused with Bread and butter pudding. Category:British cuisine Category:Puddings

Category:British cuisine

Category:Cuisine by nationality Category:European cuisine Cuisine Category:Western cuisine

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