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Viscount Severn

Viscount Severn

The title Earl of Wessex has been created twice in British history, once in the pre-Conquest Anglo-Saxon nobility of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

First creation

The Earldom of Wessex was conferred on Godwin by King Canute the Great. The Earldom had previously been reserved by the king. The Earldom passed to Godwin's son, King Harold II, who died in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings. The Earldom was not continued.
- Godwin, 1st Earl of Wessex (c.1001-1053)
- Harold Godwinson, 2nd Earl of Wessex (c.1022-1066) also created Earl of East Anglia and Earl of Hereford; created King of England in 1066

Second creation (current)

In 1999, Queen Elizabeth II's youngest son, Prince Edward, married Sophie Rhys-Jones. Younger sons of the monarch are normally given Dukedoms at the time of their marriage, and experts had suggested the Dukedoms of Cambridge and Sussex as the most likely to be granted to Prince Edward. However, given the Prince's theatrical links and the Royal Family's policy of "slimming down" their size — and Edward being seventh in the order of succession to the British throne, the Earldom of Wessex was recreated, Earl being a lesser title than Duke. This was despite the fact that Wessex has had no legal status (i.e., as a county) for centuries. When the Earldom was created, the Palace announced that the Earl of Wessex would be created Duke of Edinburgh on the death of his father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, when that title merges with the Crown. The Earldom has the subsidiary title Viscount Severn, available for use by the eldest son of the Earl as a courtesy title.
- HRH The Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex (b. 1964)

Shakespeare in Love

The 1998 film Shakespeare in Love, featured an entirely fictional villainous Earl of Wessex played by Colin Firth. Some people have suggested, perhaps somewhat tongue-in-cheek, that the Royal Family got the idea to create Prince Edward Earl of Wessex from the movie. Wessex is engaged to marry Viola de Lesseps (played by Gwyneth Paltrow). Viola poses as a male actor Thomas Kent, and falls in love with William Shakespeare (Joseph Fiennes). However, she is forced to marry Wessex by Queen Elizabeth (Judi Dench), and at the end, the Earl and Countess of Wessex move to the American Colonies. Wessex

Peerage of the United Kingdom

The Peerage of the United Kingdom comprises most peerages created in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the Act of Union in 1801. In that year, the Peerage of Great Britain was replaced by the Peerage of the United Kingdom. New peers continued to be created in the Peerage of Ireland; the creations ceased with the formation of the Irish Free State in 1922. Until the House of Lords Act 1999 was passed, all Peers of the UK could sit in the House of Lords. The ranks of the peerage are Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount, and Baron. In the following table of peers, higher or equal titles in the other peerages are listed, as are Life peerages in the Peerage of the UK.

Dukes in the Peerage of the UK

Marquesses in the Peerage of the UK

Earls and Countesses in the Peerage of the UK

Viscounts in the Peerage of the UK

Hereditary Barons in the Peerage of the UK

Life Barons and Baronesses in the Peerage of the UK

Created Under the Life Peerages Act 1958

Canute the Great

Canute(or Cnut) I, or Canute the Great (Danish: Knud II den Store, Norwegian: Knut den mektige) (994/995 – November 12, 1035) was king of England, Denmark and Norway and governor or overlord of Schleswig and Pomerania. He was the son of sea-king Sweyn Forkbeard who was an avid supporter of the old faith and reputedly a member of the Jomsvikings. Canute's mother was Gunhild (formerly Swiatoslawa daughter of Mieszko I of Poland). Canute was reared by a mother whose own mother had been abducted from a religious house and married to the first Duke of Poland, Mieszko, who later adopted Christianity. This along with his father's stout beliefs was probably the foundation of Canute's pragmatic relation to religion which would later greatly influence both Denmark and Britain. Accompanying his father on his successful invasion of England in August 1013, Canute was proclaimed king by the Danish fleet on Sweyn's death the following February, but returned to Denmark (April 1014) on the restoration of the defeated king Ethelred the Unready by the Witenagemot of English nobles. Invading England once more (August 1015), Canute fought a series of inconclusive conflicts with the English led by Ethelred and (from April 1016) by Ethelred's son, Edmund II of England until his crushing victory (October 1016) at the Battle of Assandun (probably either Ashingdon or Ashdon (known as Ascenduná in the Little Domesday Book of 1086), both in Essex, England). Meeting on an island in the river Severn, Canute and Edmund agreed to divide the kingdom, but Edmund's death (November 1016) left Canute as sole ruler, leading to his acclamation as king by the Witenagemot in January 1017. Canute solidified his new position as supreme ruler by marrying Ethelred's widow, Emma of Normandy, daughter of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy. In doing so, he strengthened political and commercial ties between England and Normandy while establishing his intentions to rule in a Christian fashion, as Emma was very devout. As king of England, Canute combined English and Danish institutions and personnel. His mutilation in April 1014 of the hostages taken by his father in pledge of English loyalty is remembered above all as being uncharacteristic of his rule. His codification (c.1020) of England's laws overlaid an element of uniformity on Saxon tradition. By dividing the country (1017) after the Danish fashion into the four great earldoms of Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria, he instituted the system of territorial lordships which would underlie English government for centuries. The very last Danegeld ever to be paid, a sum of £82,500, was paid to Canute in 1018. He felt secure enough to send the invasion fleet back to Denmark with a payment of £72,000 that same year. In order to associate his line with the overthrown English dynasty and to insure himself against attack from Normandy (place of exile of Ethelred's sons Edward and Alfred), Canute married (July 1017) Ethelred's widow Emma of Normandy, later designating their son Harthacanute as heir in preference to Harold, his (illegitimate?) son by Aelgifu of Northampton, a concubine. In 1018 (or 1019) Canute succeeded his elder brother Harold II as king of Denmark, and appointed his brother-in-law Ulf Jarl as the earl of Denmark. When the Swedish king Anund Jakob and the Norwegian king Saint Olaf took advantage of Canute's absence and attacked Denmark, Ulf convinced the freemen to elect Harthacanute king, since they were miscontent with Canute's absenteeism. This was a ruse from Ulf since his role as the caretaker of Harthacanute would make him the ruler of Denmark. When Canute learnt of what had happened in 1026, he returned to Denmark and with Ulf Jarl's help, he defeated the Swedes and the Norwegians at the Battle of Helgeå. This service, did not, however, make Canute forgive Ulf for his coup. At a banquet in Roskilde, the two brothers-in-law were playing chess and started arguing with each other. The next day, the Christmas of 1026, Canute had one of his Housecarls kill Ulf Jarl in the church of Trinity. The accounts of the two brothers and Ulf's death are contradictory. In 1028, Canute conquered Norway with a fleet of fifty ships from England: his attempt to govern Norway through Aelgifu and his other son by her, Sweyn, ended in rebellion and the restoration of the former Norwegian dynasty under Magnus I. Magnus I Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor was friendly with Canute and had his young son Henry married to Canute's daughter Cunigunde (Gunhilda). The emperor gave Canute the Mark of Schleswig and Pomerania to govern. The latter was probably the fief of Canute, since Boleslaus I of Poland sent his army to help Canute conquer England. Canute is generally regarded as a wise and successful king of England, although this view may in part be attributable to his good treatment of the church, which controlled the history writers of the day. Thus we see him described even today as a religious man, despite the fact that he lived openly in what was effectively a bigamous relationship, and despite his responsibility for many political murders. He is perhaps best remembered for the legend of how he commanded the waves to go back. According to the legend, he grew tired of flattery from his courtiers. When one such flatterer gushed that the king could even command the obedience of the sea, Canute proved him wrong by practical demonstration at Southampton, his point being that even a king's powers have limits. Unfortunately, this legend is sometimes misunderstood to mean that he believed himself so powerful that the natural elements would obey him, and that his failure to command the tides only made him look foolish. It is quite possible that the legend is simply pro-Canute propaganda. Canute died in 1035, at Shaftesbury in Dorset, and was buried at Winchester. On his death, Canute was succeeded in Denmark by Harthacanute, reigning as Canute III. Harold took power in England, however, ruling until his death (1040), whereupon the two crowns were again briefly reunited under Harthacanute. Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs Category:Danish monarchs Category:Norwegian monarchs Category:990s births Category:1035 deaths Category:Viking Age ko:크누트 대왕 ja:クヌーズ1世 (デンマーク王)

Harold II of England

Harold Godwinson, or Harold II of England (c. 1022 – October 14, 1066) was the last Anglo-Saxon King of England. He ruled from January 5 to October 14 1066 when he was killed at the Battle of Hastings.

Early Life

Harold's father was Godwin, the powerful Earl of Wessex. Godwin was himself a son to Wulfnoth Cild, Thegn of Sussex and had married twice. First to Thyra Sveinsdættir (994 - 1018), a daughter of Sweyn I who was King of Denmark, Norway and England. His second wife was Gytha Thorkelsdættir who was a granddaughter to the legendary Swedish viking Styrbjærn Starke and great-granddaughter to Harold Bluetooth, King of Denmark and Norway, father of Sweyn I. This second marriage resulted in the birth of two sons Harold and Tostig Godwinson, and a sister Edith of Wessex (1020 - 1075) who was Queen consort of Edward the Confessor. Created Earl of East Anglia in 1045, Harold accompanied Godwin into exile in 1051 but helped him to regain his position a year later. When Godwin died in 1053, Harold succeeded him as Earl of Wessex (a province at that time covering the southernmost third of England). This made him the second most powerful figure in England after the king.

Powerful Nobleman

In 1058 Harold also became Earl of Hereford, and he replaced his late father as the focus of opposition to growing Norman influence in England under the restored Saxon monarchy (1042 - 1066) of Edward the Confessor, who had spent more than a quarter of a century in exile in Normandy. He gained glory in a series of campaigns (1062 - 1063) against the ruler of Gwynedd, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, who had conquered all of Wales; this conflict ended with Gruffydd's defeat (and death at the hands of his own troops) in 1063. About 1064, Harold married Aldith, daughter of the Earl of Mercia, and former wife of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. By Harold, Aldith had two sons - possibly twins - named Harold and Ulf, both of whom survived into adulthood and probably ended their lives in exile. Harold also had several illegitimate children by his famous mistress (or wife, according to Danish law), "Ealdgyth Swan-neck" or "Edith Swan-neck" or "Edith Swanneck". In 1064, Harold was shipwrecked in Ponthieu and was turned over to the court of Duke William of Normandy. William considered himself to be the successor of the childless Edward the Confessor, and obtained from Harold an oath to support William as the future king of England. It was alleged that William forced Harold to swear to support his claim to the throne, only revealing after the event that the box on which he had made his oath contained holy relics. After Harold's death, Normans were quick to point out that in accepting the crown of England, Harold had perjured himself of this oath. The chronicler Orderic Vitalis wrote: "This Englishman was very tall and handsome, remarkable for his physical strength, his courage and eloquence, his ready jests and acts of valor. But what were these gifts to him without honor, which is the root of all good?" In 1065 Harold supported Northumbrian rebels against his brother Tostig who replaced him with Morcar, due to unjust taxation instituted by Tostig. This strengthened his acceptability as Edward's successor, but fatally divided his own family, driving Tostig into alliance with King Harald Hardrada ("Hard Reign") of Norway.

Brief but Eventful Reign as King

Upon Edward the Confessor's death in (January 5 1066), Harold claimed that Edward had promised him the crown on his deathbed, and the Witenagemot (the assembly of the kingdom's leading notables) approved him for coronation, which took place the following day. However, the country was invaded, by both Harald Hardrada of Norway and William, Duke of Normandy, who claimed that he had been promised the English crown by both Edward (probably in 1052) and Harold, who had been shipwrecked in Ponthieu, Normandy in 1064 or 1065. Harold offered his brother Tostig a third of the kingdom, and Tostig asked what Harold would offer the king of Norway. "Six feet of ground or as much more as he needs, as he is taller than most men," was Harold's response according to Henry of Huntingdon. Invading what is now Yorkshire in September, 1066, Harald Hardrada and Tostig defeated the English earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford near York (September 20), but were in turn defeated and slain by Harold's army five days later at the Battle of Stamford Bridge (September 25). Harold now forced his army to march 240 miles to intercept William, who had landed perhaps 7000 men in Sussex, southern England three days later on September 28. Harold established his army in hastily built earthworks near Hastings. The two armies clashed at the Battle of Hastings, near the present town of Battle close by Hastings on October 14, where after a hard fight Harold was killed and his forces routed. According to tradition, and as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, Harold was killed by an arrow in the eye. His brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were also killed in the battle. Whether he did, indeed, die in this manner (a death associated in the middle ages with perjurers), or was killed by the sword, will never be known. Harold's mistress, Edith Swanneck, was called to identify the body, which she did by some private mark (the face being destroyed) known only to herself. Although one Norman account claims that Harold's body was buried in a grave overlooking the Saxon shore, it is more likely that he was buried in his church of Waltham Holy Cross in Essex, which he had refounded in 1060.

Legacy and Legend

Harold's illegitimate daughter Gytha of Wessex married Vladimir Monomakh Grand Duke (Velikii Kniaz) of Kievan Rus' and is ancestor to dynasties of Galicia, Smolensk and Yaroslavl, whose scions include Modest Mussorgsky and Peter Kropotkin. Consequently, the Russian Orthodox Church recently recognised Harold as a martyr with October 14 as his feast day. Ulf, along with Morcar and two others, were released from prison by King William as he lay dying in 1087. He threw his lot in with Robert Curthose, who knighted him, and disappeared from history. Two of his elder half-brothers, Godwine and Magnus, made a number of attempts at invading England in 1068 and 1069 with the aid of Diarmait mac Mail na mBo. They raided Cornwall as late as 1082, but died in obscurity in Ireland. A cult of hero-worship rose around Harold, and by the 12th century, legend says that Harold had indeed survived the battle, had spent two years in Winchester after the battle recovering from his wounds, and then traveled to Germany, where he spent years wandering as a pilgrim. As an old man, he supposedly returned to England, and lived as a hermit in a cave near Dover. As he lay dying, he confessed that although he went by the name of Christian, he had been born Harold Godwinson. Various versions of this story persisted throughout the Middle Ages, and have little claim to fact. Literary interest in Harold revived in the 19th century, with the play Harold, by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, in (1876); and the novel Last of the Saxon Kings, by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, in (1848). Rudyard Kipling wrote a story, The Tree of Justice (1910), describing how an old man who turns out to be Harold is brought before Henry I. E. A. Freeman wrote a serious history in History of the Norman Conquest of England (1870-79), in which Harold is seen as a great English hero. A fictional account based on the events surrounding Harold's struggle for and brief reign as king of England titled "The Interim King" has been published and is written by James McMillan. By the 21st century, Harold's reputation remains tied as it has always been, with subjective views of the "right-ness" or "wrong-ness" of the Norman conquest.

Family Tree

Ealhmund of Kent, King of Kent AD 784. Ancestry unknown. =? | | Egbert of Wessex, c.770-839. Paternity uncertin. =Redburga | | Ethelwulf of Wessex, c.795-858 =Osburga daughter of Oslac of Isle of Wight =Judith of France daughter of Bald |___________________________________________________________ | | | | | | | | | | | | Athelstan Athelbald Aethelberht Athelred Aethelswith Alfred the Great d.851? d.860 d.862 =Wulfrida d.888 =Ealhswith | | ____________________________________| | | | | | | | Aethelwald Aethelhelm, Earldorman of Wiltshire | k.899 =Elswitha | | | | ___________________|________________ | | | | | | | Aethelfrith of Wessex (d.927) Elfleda of Wessex (d.918)+Edward the Elder =? | | | | Ethelweard Eadric of Washington, Wessex =? | | Athelward "the historian" (d.998) =? | | Athelmar Cild (d.1015) =? | | Wulfnoth Cild, Thegn of Sussex =? | | Godwin, Earl of Wessex =Gytha Thorgilsdottir | |___________________________________________________________________________ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sven Tostig Gyrth Leofwine Wulfnoth Waeltheow Morcar Edwin Herbert Alfgar | & sisters Edith, Elgiva, Gunhilda, Gytha | | Harold Godwinson +Ealdgyth Swan-neck =Aldith (married 1064) | | | _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ |_________ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Godwine Edmund Magnus Gunhild Gytha of Wessex Harold Ulf b.1049 b.1049 b.1051 1055-97 1053-1098 fl.1098 fl.1087 two sons died in exile in Ireland lived in Normandy? issue & fate unknown Sources: http://www.mathematical.com/englandharold1019.html http://www.draftymanor.com/bart/GenBrit/b0002537.htm

Bibliography

Biography by P. Compton (1961); F. M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England (3d ed. 1971). Biography by Ian W. Walker: Harold: The Last Anglo-Saxon King. Sutton Publishing, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1997. ISBN 0-7509-1388-6

External links

- [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/s050/f395158.htm A pedigree of him ; not necessarily reliable]
- [http://nygaard.50g.com/files/1389.htm Another profile of him]
- [http://armidalesoftware.com/issue/full/Thaler_174_main.html A chart including him among the descendants of King Cerdic of Wessex]
- [http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cousin/html/p85.htm#i5571 A short profile of him among other related persons] Category:1022 births Category:1066 deaths Category:Viking Age Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs ja:ハロルド2世 (イングランド王)

Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings was the decisive Norman victory in the Norman conquest of England in 1066.

Prelude

On September 28, 1066, William of Normandy, asserting by arms his claim to the English crown, landed unopposed at Pevensey. Legend has it that upon setting foot on the beach, William tripped and fell on his face. Turning potential embarrassment in front of his troops into a face-saving exercise, he rose with his hands full of sand and shouted "I now take hold of the land of England!" (This bears suspicious resemblance to the story of Julius Caesar's invasion of Britain; and was probably employed by William's biographer to enhance the similarities between Caesar and William.) On hearing the news of the landing of the Duke's forces, the Anglo-Saxon King Harold II, who had just destroyed an invading Norwegian army under King Harald Hardråda at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire, hurried southward, gathering what forces he could on the way. Harold deployed his force, astride the road from Hastings to London, on Senlac Hill some six miles inland from Hastings. To his back was the great forest of Anderida (the Weald) and in front the ground fell away in a long glacis-like slope, which at the bottom rose again as the opposing slope of Telham Hill. The later town called Battle in the modern county of East Sussex was named to commemorate this event. The English force is usually estimated at seven to eight thousand strong, and consisted entirely of infantry (the English rode to their battles but did not fight from horseback). It comprised the English men-at-arms of the fyrd, mainly thegns (the English equivalent of a land-holding aristocracy); along with some local peasant levies, lesser thegns and a core of professional warriors, the King's royal troops and bodyguards, the Housecarls. The thegns and housecarls, probably veterans of the recent Stamford Bridge battle, were armed principally with swords, spears, and in some cases the formidable Danish axes, and were protected by coats of chainmail and their long kite-shaped shields. They took the front ranks, forming a 'shield wall' with interlocking shields side by side. Behind the thegns and housecarls, the lesser thegns and peasant levies were armed with whatever weapons they had at hand: the entire army took up position along the ridgeline. (As casualities fell in the front lines the lesser thegns and peasants would move forward and fill the gaps.) On the morning of Saturday, October 14, Duke William gathered his army below the English position. The Norman army was of comparable size to the English force, and composed of William's Norman, Breton and Flemish vassals along with their retainers, and freebooters from as far away as Norman Italy. The nobles had been promised English lands and titles in return for their material support: the common troopers were paid in booty and "cash", and hoped for land when English fiefs were handed out. The army was deployed in the classic medieval fashion of three divisions or "battles" - the Normans taking the centre, the Bretons on the left wing and the Franco-Flemish on right wing. Each battle comprised infantry, cavalry and archers along with crossbowmen. The archers and crossbowmen stood to the front for the start of the battle. Legend has it that William's minstrel and knight Ivo Taillefer, begged his master for permission to strike the first blows of the battle. Permission was granted, and Taillefer rode before the English alone, tossing his sword and lance in the air and catching them while he sang an early version of The Song of Roland. The earliest account of this tale (in The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio) says that an English champion came from the ranks, and Taillefer quickly slew him, taking his head as a trophy to show that God favored the invaders: later 12th century sources say that Taillefer charged into the English ranks and killed one to three Englishmen before suffering death himself.

The battle

The battle commenced with an archery barrage from the Norman archers and crossbowmen. However, as the Norman archers drew their bowstrings only to the jaw and their crossbows were loaded by hand without assistance from a windlass, most shots either failed to penetrate the housecarls' shields or sailed over their heads to fall harmlessly beyond. In any event, the archery failed to make any impression on the English lines. The Norman infantry and cavalry then advanced, led by the Duke and his half-brothers, Bishop Odo, and Count Robert of Mortain. All along the front the men-at-arms and cavalry came to close quarters with the defenders, but the long powerful Danish axes were formidable and after a prolonged melee the front of the English line was littered with cut down horses and the dead and dying. The shield wall remained solid, the English shouting their defiance with "Olicrosse!" (holy cross) and "Ut, ut!" (out, out). Count Robert of Mortain However, the Bretons on the left wing (where the slope is gentlest), came into contact with the shield wall first. Inexperienced and unprepared for the savage defence of the English, the Bretons broke and fled. Possibly led by one of Harold's brothers, elements of the English right wing broke ranks and pursued the Bretons down the hill in a wild unformed charge. On the flat, without a defensive shield wall formation, the English were charged by the Norman cavalry and slaughtered. This eagerness of the English to switch to a premature offensive was noted by Norman lords and the tactic of the 'feigned' flights was allegedly used with some success by the Norman horsemen throughout the day. With each subsequent assault later in the day, the Norman cavalry began a series of attacks each time, only to wheel away after a short time in contact with the English line. A group of English would rush out to pursue the apparently defeated enemy, only to be ridden-over and destroyed when the cavalry wheeled about again to force them away from the shield wall. The Normans retired to rally and re-group, and to begin the assault again on the shield wall. The battle dragged on throughout the remainder of the day, each repeated Norman attack weakening the shield wall and leaving the ground in front littered with English and Norman dead. Toward the end of the day, the English defensive line was depleted. The repeated Norman infantry assaults and cavalry charges had thinned out the armoured housecarls, the lines now filled by the lower-quality peasant levies. William was also worried, as nightfall would soon force his own depleted army to retire, perhaps even to the ships where they would be prey to the English fleet in the Channel. Preparing for the final assault, William ordered the archers and crossbowmen forward again. This time the archers fired high, the arrows raining upon the English rear ranks and causing heavy casualties. As the Norman infantry and cavalry closed yet again, Harold received a mortal wound. Traditionally he is believed to have been pierced through the eye by an arrow (through interpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry). But The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio describes how Harold was cut to pieces by Norman knights led by William himself: and the Bayeux Tapestry shows him being cut down by a Norman knight, thus agreeing with The Carmen. It is possible that both versions of Harold's end are true: he was first wounded in the face by an arrow, then killed by hand weapons in the final Norman assault. The renewed Norman attack reached the top of the hill on the English extreme left and right wing. The Normans then began to roll up the English flanks along the ridgeline. The English line began to waver, and the Norman men-at-arms forced their way in, breaking the shield wall at several points. Fyrdmen and housecarls, learning that their king was dead, began streaming away from the battle; the Normans overran the hilltop in pursuit. Harold's personal guard died fighting to the last as a circle of housecarls around the king's body and his battle standards (the Dragon standard of Wessex and the Fighting man, his personal standard). Harold's corpse (through an interpretation of The Carmen) was probably emasculated by one of his attackers.

Aftermath

Only a remnant of the defenders made their way back to the forest. Some of the Norman forces pursued the English but were ambushed and destroyed in the semi-darkness when they ran afoul of steep ground, called in later (12th century) sources, "the Malfosse", or "bad ditch." William, after resting for a night on the hardly-won ground, began the work of the Norman Conquest. He recruited his army for two weeks near Hastings, waiting for the English lords to come and submit to him. Then after he realized his hopes of submission at that point were vain, he began his advance on London. His army was seriously reduced for several weeks in November by dysentery, and William himself was gravely ill. Nevertheless, he directed his forces to continue their approach on the capital: in three columns they made their way to Wallingford on the Thames. After crossing over, William threatened London with a siege. After a few failed attempts at aggression near London, the fight had gone out of the remaining English nobility. The northern earls, Edwin and Morcar, Esegar the sheriff of London, and Edgar the Atheling (who had even been elected - but not crowned - "king" in a feeble attempt to continue the resistance) all came out and submitted to the Norman Duke. William was crowned as England's third king that year, on Christmas day at Westminster. Battle Abbey was built at the site of the battle of Hastings, and a plaque marks the place where Harold fell, and where the high altar of the church once stood. The settlement of Battle, East Sussex grew up around the abbey and is now a small market town. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the events before and at the Battle of Hastings. The Battle of Hastings is also an excellent example of the application of the theory of combined arms. The Norman archers, cavalry and infantry co-operated together to deny the English the initiative and gave the homogenous English infantry force few tactical options except defence.

Links

Battle of Hastings reenactment

External links

- [http://www.1066.us www.1066.us], an extensive Website on the battle, with an emphasis on wargaming simulation.
- [http://battle1066.com Battle of Hastings, 1066], for more information.
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/hastings/hastings.html James Grout: The Battle of Hastings, part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
- [http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?0440220114 The King's Shadow], a book based on this event.
- [http://www.chivalry.com/cantaria/lyrics/shieldw.html The Song of the Shield Wall], an SCA song about the event. Category:1066 Hastings 1066 Hastings 1066 Category:History of East Sussex

Godwin, Earl of Wessex

Godwin (sometimes Godwine) (c. 1001 – April 15, 1053), was one of the most powerful lords in England under the Danish king Canute the Great and his successors. Canute made him the first Earl of Wessex. Godwin was the father of Harold II and of Edith of Wessex, wife of Edward the Confessor.

Biography

Godwin was a seventh generation descendant of King Ethelred of Wessex, the elder brother of Alfred the Great. His descendants were passed over in the royal succession, but became prominent nobles in the kingdom. Godwin's father was Wulfnoth Cild (c.983-1015) who was Thegn of Sussex. Wulfnoth led a section of the royal fleet into piracy and as a consequence had his lands forfeited, and was exiled. It was left to his young son, Godwin, to improve the family fortunes after his father's death in 1014. Godwin was a major supporter of Edmund Ironside, the son of King Aethelred the Unready. While Edmund was in rebellion against his father, Canute and his army invaded England. Edmund was killed, along with many of his supporters, but Godwin survived and pledged his loyalty to Canute. He became one of Canute's advisors, and accompanied him to Denmark to suppress a rebellion there. In 1022 he married Thyra Sveinsdóttir, Canute's sister. She died soon afterwards, but Godwin continued to gain prestige and in 1023 he was the most powerful earl in England. Godwin married again to another Danish noblewoman, Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, granddaughter of the legendary Viking Styrbjörn Starke and great-granddaughter to Harold Bluetooth. The marriage resulted in the birth of many children: #Sweyn Godwinson, Earl of Herefordshire (c. 1025-1052). At some point he declared himself an illegitimate son of Canute the Great but this is considered to be a false claim. #Harold II of England (c. 1025-October 14, 1066) #Tostig Godwinson, Earl of Northumbria (c. 1026-September 25, 1066). #Edith of Wessex, (c. 1030-December 19, 1075), queen consort of Edward the Confessor #Gyrth Godwinson (c. 1030-October 14, 1066) #Gunhilda of Wessex, a nun (c. 1035-1080) #Ælfgifu of Wessex (c.1035) #Leofwine Godwinson, Earl of Kent (c. 1035-October 14, 1066) #Wulfnoth Godwinson (c.1040) On November 12, 1035, Canute died. His kingdoms were divided among three rival rulers. Harold Harefoot, Cantute's illegitimate son by Aelgifu of Northampton, seized the throne of England. Harthacanute, Canute's legitimate son by Emma of Normandy, reigned in Denmark. Norway rebelled under Magnus the Noble. In 1037, the throne of England was reportedly claimed by Alfred of Wessex, son of Emma of Normandy and Ethelred the Unready and half-brother of Harthacanute. Godwin is reported to have either captured Alfred himself or to have deceived him by pretending to be his ally and then surrendering him to the forces of Harold Harefoot. Either way Alfred was blinded and soon died. On March 17, 1040, Harold Harefoot died and Godwin supported the accession of Harthacanute to the throne of England. When Harthacanute himself died (June 8, 1042), Godwin supported the claim of his half-brother Edward the Confessor to the throne. Edward was another son of Emma and Ethelred, having spent most of the previous thirty years in Normandy. His reign restored the native royal house of Wessex to the throne of England. Despite his alleged responsibility for the death of Edward's brother Alfred, Godwin secured the marriage of his daughter Edith (Eadgyth) to Edward in 1045. Godwin soon became the leader of opposition to growing Norman influence as Edward drew advisors, nobles and priests from his former place of refuge. Exiled from the kingdom in September 1051 for refusing to punish the people of Dover for a violent clash with the visiting Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, Godwin returned the following year with an armed force, compelling Edward to restore his earldom. On April 15, 1053, Godwin died. His son Harold succeeded him as Earl of Wessex, an area then covering roughly the southernmost third of England. Harold later succeeded Edward the Confessor and became King of England in his own right.

Sources

- Mason, Emma. House of Godwine: The History of Dynasty
- Stenton, F.M. Anglo-Saxon England (Oxford History of England), 2001
- Walker, Ian. Harold: The Last Anglo-Saxon King, 1997

External links

- [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/s000/f790317.htm A pedigree of him ; not necessarily reliable]
- [http://armidalesoftware.com/issue/full/Thaler_174_main.html A chart including him among the descedants of King Cerdic of Wessex]
- [http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cousin/html/p85.htm#i5573 A short profile of him among other related persons]
- [http://www.geocities.com/egfrothos/Godwins.html A more detailed article on him and his descedants]
- [http://www.allthetubthumpers.com A list of descendants]
- [http://www.medievalhistory.net/page0008.htm A critical account of his life] Category:Anglo-Saxon people Category:1001 births Category:1053 deaths Category:Viking Age

1001

Events

- Grand Prince Stephen I of Hungary is named the first King of Hungary by Pope Silvester II.
- Canonisation of Edward the Martyr, king of England.
- Robert II, King of France marries for the third time, with Constance Taillefer d'Arles.
- Khmer king Jayavarman V is succeeded by Udayadityavarman I and/or Suryavarman I.
- Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor has Charlemagne's vault opened (see Aachen Cathedral).

Births

- August 15 - King Duncan I of Scotland (died 1040)
- Nicephorus III, Byzantine Emperor
- Ingegerd Olofsdotter, daughter of Olof Skötkonung (died 1049)

Deaths

- Hrosvit, Saxon nun and poet
- Wang Yi-Ch'eng, Chinese poet Category:1001 ko:1001년

1053

Events

- June 18 - Battle of Civitate - 3000 horsemen of Norman Count Humphrey rout the troops of Pope Leo IX
- Good harvests in Europe
- Malcolm Canmore invades Scotland.
- October 25, battle of St-Aubin (or Arques): duke William of Normandy routed an army from Ponthieu (see deaths).

Births

- July 7 - Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (d. 1129)
- Guibert of Nogent, French historian and theologian (d. 1124)
- Vladimir Monomakh, Prince of Kiev (d. 1125)
- Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona
- Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona

Deaths

- April 15 - Godwin, Earl of Wessex
- October 25 - Count Enguerrand II of Ponthieu. Category:1053 ko:1053년

Harold II of England

Early Life

Powerful Nobleman

Brief but Eventful Reign as King

Legacy and Legend

Family Tree

Bibliography

External links

1022

Events

- Several Catharist heretics are killed in Toulouse.
- Olof Skötkonung, King of Sweden dies and is succeeded by Anund Jakob.
- Synod of Pavia - decrees against non-celibate clergy and against simony
- Robert II the Pious burns some canons of St Croix in Orleans, for holding that the world is inherently evil
- Aethelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, received at Rome
- Al-Muizz ibn Badis begins to rule Ifriqiya in his own right.

Births

Deaths

- December 20 - Elvira Mendes, queen of Alfonso V of Castile (b. 996)
- Olof Skötkonung, King of Sweden
- Emperor Zhenzong of China Category:1022 ko:1022년

1066

Events

- January 6 - Harold II is crowned King of England the day after Edward the Confessor dies.
- September 20 - Tostig Godwinson and Harald Hardraada of Norway invade England, landing at Riccall just south of York.
- September 25 - Harold II defeats Tostig and Harald Hardraada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, killing both.
- September 28 - Norman Conquest: William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades England.
- October 14 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill, seven miles from Hastings, the Norman invasion forces of William the Conqueror defeat the English army and kill King Harold II of England. The Norman dynasty of English Kings followed. England was not successfully invaded again until the invasion of William III on November 5, 1688.
- The Viking port of Hedeby was destroyed by marauding Slavs.
- A new church is begun at Monte Cassino.
- Halley's Comet is sighted in Britain.
- Boxgrove Priory founded

Births

- Al-Afdal Shahanshah, vizier of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt.
- Henry, Count of Portugal
- Irene Ducaena, wife of Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus

Deaths

- January 5 - King Edward the Confessor of England
- September 25 - Killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge:
- Tostig Godwinson, Earl of Northumbria
- King Harald III of Norway (b. 1015)
- October 14 - Killed at the Battle of Hastings:
- King Harold II of England
- November 10 - Sacrificed to Radegast:
- Bishop of Mecklenburg Johannes Skotus (b. approx. 990) Category:1066 ko:1066년 simple:1066

Earl of Hereford

The title of Earl of Hereford was created several times in the Peerage of England. See also Duke of Hereford, Viscount Hereford.

Earls of Hereford, First Creation (1067)

- William Fitzosbern, 1st Earl of Hereford (1030-1072)
- Roger de Breteuil, 2nd Earl of Hereford (1053-after 1074), peerage forfeit 1074

Earls of Hereford, Second Creation (1141)

- Miles de Gloucester, 1st Earl of Hereford (1100-1143)
- Roger Fitzmiles, 2nd Earl of Hereford (d.1155)

Earls of Hereford, Third Creation (1199)

- Henry de Bohun, 1st Earl of Hereford (1176-1220)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 2nd Earl of Hereford (1208-1275)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford (1251-1298)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (1276-1322)
- John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (1307-1336)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 6th Earl of Hereford (1311-1361)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (1341-1373) Hereford

King of England

The Kingdom of England was first unified as a state by Athelstan of Wessex. It ceased to exist as an independent kingdom following the Act of Union in 1707, when it was merged with the Kingdom of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Today, England exists as one of the constituent countries and nations of the United Kingdom, alongside Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, "Her (or His) Majesty's Peculiars", and a number of colonial holdings. See also: English monarchs family tree.

The Saxon kings

- Ælfred (Alfred) the Great (871-899)
- Edward the Elder (899-924)
- Ethelweard (924)
- Athelstan (924-939)
- Edmund I (939-946)
- Edred (946-955)
- Edwy (955-959)
- Edgar (959-975)
- Edward the Martyr (975-978)
- Ethelred II (978-1013)

Danish Kings

- Sweyn I of Denmark (1013-1014)

The Saxon Kings

- Ethelred II (Restored) (1014-1016)
- Edmund II "Ironside" (1016)

Danish Kings

- Canute I (1016-1035)
- Harold I (1035-1040)
- Canute II (1040-1042)

The Saxon restoration

- Edward the Confessor (1042-1066)
- Harold II (1066)
- Edgar Ætheling, uncrowned (1066)

The Norman kings

After the Norman Conquest in 1066, numbering of kings began anew; this affected only the Edwards.
- William I (1066-1087)
- William II (1087-1100)
- Henry I (1100-1135)
- Stephen (1135-1154)

The Angevins or Plantagenets

- Henry II (1154-1189)
- Richard I (1189-1199)
- John (1199-1216)
- Henry III (1216-1272)
- Edward I (1272-1307)
- Edward II (1307-1327)
- Edward III (1327-1377)
- Richard II (1377-1399)

The House of Lancaster

- Henry IV (1399-1413)
- Henry V (1413-1422)
- Henry VI (1422-1461 and 1470-1471)

The House of York

- Edward IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483)
- Edward V, uncrowned (1483)
- Richard III (1483-1485)

The House of Tudor

- Henry VII (1485-1509)
- Henry VIII (1509-1547)
- Edward VI (1547-1553)¹
- Mary I (1553-1558)
- Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

The House of Stuart

- James I, (1603-1625), also from an earlier date King James VI of Scots
- Charles I (1625-1649), also King of Scots

Interregnum

There was no reigning king between Charles I's execution in 1649 and the restoration in 1660. See English Interregnum.

The Stuart restoration

- Charles II (1660-1685), also King of Scots
- James II (1685-1688), also King James VII of Scots
- William III and Mary II (1689-1694), as co-monarchs, also King and Queen of Scotland
- William III (1694-1702), continued as single monarch, also King of Scotland
- Anne (1702-1707), also Queen of Scotland, then Queen of Great Britain after 1707 until her death in 1714 William III, Mary II and Anne used the style "of Scotland" rather than "of Scots". From 1707, the terms "King of England" and "Queen of England" are incorrect. Hence, this list runs up to 1707; for monarchs after that date, see List of British monarchs.

Footnotes

¹Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen on the death of Edward VI; however, Mary I deposed her after 9 days, and so she is not included in the list as she is not considered to have been de jure Queen.

External link

- [http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/ English Monarchs] England, Monarchs Category:History of England
- England Monarchs of England Monarchs of England Monarchs of England

1999

1999 (MCMXCIX) is a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations.

Events

- Kosovo War
- Y2K preparation was a major event in 1999 both in actual events and in media over-reporting.
- The human population of the world surpassed six billion. The United Nations Population Fund designated October 12 as the approximate date for this event.

January

- January 1 - Euro currency introduced.
- January 1 - An avalanche destroys a school gymnasium during New Year celebrations in Kangiqsualujjuaq in far northern Quebec, killing nine.
- January 2 - A brutal snowstorm smashes into the Midwestern USA, causing 14 inches (359 mm) of snow at Milwaukee, Wisconsin and 19 inches (487 mm) at Chicago, Illinois. In Chicago, temperatures plunge to -13°F (-25°C), and 68 deaths are reported.
- January 4 - Gunmen open fire on Shiite Muslims worshipping in an Islamabad mosque killing 16 people and injuring 25.
- January 12 - The remains of Christina Marie Williams were found three miles (5 km) from her home on the old Fort Ord military base.
- January 20 - The China News Service announces new government restrictions on Internet use aimed especially at Internet cafes.
- January 21 - War on Drugs: In one of the largest drug busts in American history, the United States Coast Guard intercepts a ship with over 9,500 pounds (4.3 t) of cocaine aboard. The ship was headed for Houston, Texas.
- January 25 - A 6.0 Richter scale earthquake hits western Colombia killing at least 1,000

February

- February 4 - Unarmed West African immigrant Amadou Diallo is shot dead by four plainclothes New York City police officers on an unrelated stake-out, inflaming race-relations in the city.
- February 5 - Mike Tyson is sentenced to a year's imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve 2 years probation and perform 200 hours of community service for the August 31, 1998 assault on two people after a car accident.
- February 7 - King of Jordan, Hussein of Jordan, dies from cancer. His son Abdullah II then inherits the throne, and becomes King of Jordan.
- February 10 - Avalanches in the French Alps near Geneva kill at least ten.
- February 11 - Pluto, a planet with an irregular orbit, changes from the eighth to ninth planet furthest from the Sun. It had been the eighth furthest since 1979, and will become again in 2231.
- February 12 - President Bill Clinton is acquitted by the United States Senate in his impeachment trial
- February 12 - John Myatt and John Drewe are sentenced for art forgery for one and six years, respectively.
- February 16 - In Uzbekistan a bomb explodes and gunfire is heard at the government headquarters in an apparent assassination attempt against President Islam Karimov.
- February 16 - Across Europe, Kurdish rebels take over embassies and hold hostages after Turkey arrested one of their rebel leaders, Abdullah Öcalan.
- February 16 - In Jasper, Texas, testimony begins in the trial of John William King who is accused of dragging African American James Byrd Jr. to death in an apparent hate crime. King was later convicted and sentenced to the death penalty.
- February 22 - Moderate Iraqi Shiite cleric Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr is assassinated.
- February 23 - Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey.
- February 23 - White supremacist John William King is found guilty of kidnapping and killing African American James Byrd Jr by dragging him behind a truck for two miles (3 km).
- February 23 - An avalanche destroys the Austrian village of Galtür, killing 31.
- February 24 - LaGrand Case: The State of Arizona executes Karl LaGrand, a German national involved in an armed robbery that led to a death. Karl's brother Walter is executed a week later, in spite of Germany's legal action in the International Court of Justice to attempt to save him.
- February 27 - While trying to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon, Colin Prescot and Andy Elson set a new endurance record after being in a hot air balloon for 233 hours and 55 minutes.
- February 27 - Olusegun Obasanjo becomes Nigeria's first elected president since mid-1983.

March

- March 1 - One of four bombs detonated in Lusaka, Zambia, destroys the Angolan Embassy.
- March 1 - Rwandan Hutu rebels kill and hack to pieces eight foreign tourists at the Buhoma homestead, Uganda
- March 1 - The Convention on the Prohibition of Anti-Personnel Mines comes into force.
- March 3 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones begin their attempt to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon without stopping. Their journey ended in success on March 21.
- March 4 - Monica Lewinsky's book detailing her affair with Bill Clinton goes on sale in the United States
- March 4 - In a military court, Captain Richard Ashby of the United States Marines is acquitted of the charge of reckless flying which resulted in the deaths of 20 skiers in the Italian Alps when his low-flying jet hit a gondola cable.
- March 12 - Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic join NATO.
- March 15 - The European Commission under the presidency of Jacques Santer resigns over allegations of corruption.
- March 17 - The [http://www.roth-401k-forum.com/ Roth 401k] is introduced by Sen Roth Jr., William V.
- March 20 - Serbs launch an offensive in Bosnia
- March 21 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon.
- March 22 - US pro-euthanasia doctor Jack Kevorkian goes on trial for murder in Pontiac, Michigan. He is later convicted of second-degree murder
- March 23 - Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña
- March 24 - NATO launches air strikes in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which was refusing to sign a peace treaty. This marks the first time NATO attacked a sovereign country
- March 24 - Fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel kills 39 people, closing the tunnel for nearly 3 years.
- March 26 - The Melissa worm attacks the Internet.
- March 26 - A jury in Michigan finds Dr. Jack Kevorkian guilty of second-degree murder for administering a lethal injection to a terminally ill man (the incident was videotaped and aired on September 17, 1998 edition of 60 Minutes)
- March 29 - For the first time, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above the 10000 mark at 10006.78.

April

- April 1 - Nunavut, an Inuit homeland, part of the Northwest Territories becomes Canada's third territory.
- April 5 - Two Libyans suspected of bringing down Pan Am flight 103 in 1988 are handed over to Scottish authorities for eventual trial in the Netherlands. The United Nations suspends sanctions against Libya
- April 5 - In Laramie, Wyoming, Russell Henderson pleads guilty to kidnapping and felony murder in order to avoid a possible death penalty conviction for the apparent hate crime killing of Matthew Shepard
- April 7 - Kosovo War: Kosovo's main border crossings are closed by Serbian forces to prevent ethnic Albanians from leaving
- April 7 - Bomb explodes in the Valley of the Fallen church in Spain - GRAPO claims responsibility
- April 9 - Ibrahim