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Pope Leo XII

Pope Leo XII

Leo XII, born Annibale Francesco Clemente Melchiore Girolamo Nicola della Genga (August 22, 1760 – February 10, 1829), was Pope from 1823 to 1829. Della Genga was born of a noble family from La Genga (now just Genga), a small town in Ancona province: the place of his birth is uncertain, the usual candidates being Genga, Ancona, and Spoleto. He was educated at the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici at Rome, where he was ordained priest in 1783. In 1790 della Genga attracted favourable attention by a tactful sermon commemorative of the emperor Joseph II.

Private Secretary to Pope Pius VI

In 1792 Pope Pius VI made him his private secretary; in 1793 creating him titular archbishop of Tyre and despatching him to Lucerne as nuncio. In 1794 he was transferred to the nunciature at Cologne, but owing to the war had to make his residence in Augsburg. During the dozen or more years he spent in Germany he was entrusted with several honourable and difficult missions, which brought him into contact with the courts of Dresden, Vienna, Munich and Württemberg, as well as with Napoleon. It is, however, charged at one time during this period that his finances were disordered, and his private life was not above suspicion. After the abolition of the States of the Church, he was treated by the French as a state prisoner, and lived for some years at the abbey of Monticelli, solacing himself with music and with bird-shooting, pastimes which he continued even after his election as pope.

Cardinal priest

In 1814 della Genga was chosen to carry the pope's congratulations to Louis XVIII of France; in 1816 he was created cardinal priest presiding over the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, and appointed to the see of Sinigaglia, which he resigned in 1818. In 1820 Pope Pius VII gave him the distinguished post of cardinal vicar.

Election as pope

In the conclave of 1823, in spite of the active opposition of France, he was elected pope by the zelanti on the 28th of September. His election had been facilitated because he was thought to be at death's door; but he unexpectedly rallied.

Foreign policy

His foreign policy, entrusted at first to Giulio Maria della Somaglia and then to the more able Tommaso Bernetti, moved in general along lines laid down by Consalvi; and he negotiated certain concordats very advantageous to the papacy. Personally most frugal, Leo reduced taxes, made justice less costly, and was able to find money for certain public improvements; yet he left the finances more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate jubilee of 1825 did not really mend matters.

Domestic policy

His domestic policy was one of extreme reaction. He condemned the Bible societies, and under Jesuit influence reorganized the educational system. Severe ghetto laws led many of the Jews to emigrate. He hunted down the Carbonari and the Freemasons. He took the strongest measures against political agitation in theatres. A well-nigh ubiquitous system of espionage, perhaps most fruitful when directed against official corruption, sapped the foundations of public confidence. Leo, temperamentally stern, and hard-working in spite of bodily infirmity, died at Rome on February 10, 1829. The news was received by the populace with unconcealed joy.

References

- Leo 12 Leo 12 Leo 12 Leo 12 Leo 12 ko:교황 레오 12세 ja:レオ12世 (ローマ教皇)

August 22

August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining.

Events

- 1485 - The Battle of Bosworth Field decisively ends the Wars of the Roses
- 1559 - Bartholome de Carranza, Spanish archbishop, is arrested for heresy
- 1642 - Charles I calls the English Parliament traitors. Beginning of the English Civil War
- 1654 - Jacob Barsimson arrives in New Amsterdam. He is the first Jewish immigrant to what is later the United States
- 1717 - Spanish troops land on Sardinia
- 1770 - James Cook's expedition lands on the east coast of Australia
- 1775 - King George III declares the American colonies to be in open rebellion
- 1780 - James Cook's ship Resolution returns to England (Cook having been killed on Hawaii during the voyage)
- 1791 - Beginning of the Haitian Slave Revolution in Saint-Domingue
- 1798 - French troops land in County Mayo, Ireland to aid Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen's Irish Rebellion
- 1846 - The United States annexes New Mexico
- 1851 - Gold is discovered in Australia
- 1851 - The first America's Cup is won by the yacht America.
- 1875 - The Treaty of Saint Petersburg between Japan and Russia is ratified, providing for the exchange of Sakhalin for the Kuril Islands.
- 1864 - Twelve nations sign the First Geneva Convention. The Red Cross is formed.
- 1901 - Cadillac Motor Company founded
- 1902 - Theodore Roosevelt became the first President of the United States to ride in an automobile
- 1910 - Japan annexes Korea with the signing of the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. The name Korea was abolished and replaced with the ancient name Joseon.
- 1911 - Theft of the Mona Lisa is discovered
- 1914 - World War I: In Belgium, British and German troops clash for the first time in the war.
- 1922 - Michael Collins, Commander-in-Chief of the Irish Free State Army is shot dead during an Anti-Treaty ambush at Beal na mBlath, County Cork, during the Irish Civil War.
- 1926 - Gold discovered in Johannesburg, South Africa
- 1941 - World War II: German troops reach Leningrad, leading to the siege of Leningrad
- 1942 - World War II: Brazil declares war on the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan)
- 1944 - World War II: Last transport of French Jews to concentration camps in Germany
- 1944 - World War II: Thirty-two Spaniards & four French Maquis tackle a German column (1,300 men in 60 lorries, with 6 tanks & 2 self-propelled guns), at La Madeiline, France. Three Maquis are wounded, with 110 Germans killed and 200 wounded.
- 1950 - Althea Gibson becomes the first black competitor in international tennis
- 1953 - The jail on Devil's Island is closed
- 1962 - An attempt to assassinate French president Charles De Gaulle fails
- 1962 - The NS Savannah, the world's first nuclear-powered ship, completes its maiden voyage
- 1968 - Pope Paul VI arrives in Bogotá, Colombia. It is the first visit of a pope to Latin America
- 1972 - Rhodesia is expelled by the IOC for its racist policies
- 1988 - The Australian koala, the first platinum coin, is issued
- 1989 - The first ring of Neptune is discovered
- 1989 - Nolan Ryan strikes out Rickey Henderson to become the first major league baseball pitcher to record 5000 strikeouts.
- 1992 - FBI HRT sniper Lon Horiuchi shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at Ruby Ridge, Idaho.
- 2001 - the Trojan room coffee pot is switched off for the last time.
- 2004 - The Scream, the painting by Edvard Munch, is stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway.

Births

- 1601 - Georges de Scudéry, French writer (d. 1667)
- 1624 - Jean Renaud de Segrais, French writer (d. 1701)
- 1647 - Denis Papin, French physicist, mathematician, and inventor
- 1679 - Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758)
- 1760 - Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)
- 1764 - Charles Percier, French architect (d. 1838)
- 1771 - Henry Maudslay, English inventor and tool-maker (d. 1831)
- 1800 - William S. Harney, U.S. general (d. 1889)
- 1802 - Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard, American land speculator (d. 1886)
- 1834 - Samuel Pierpont Langley, American astronomer, physicist, inventor, aviation pioneer (d. 1906)
- 1854 - King Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901)
- 1860 - Paul Nipkow, German inventor and television pioneer (d. 1940)
- 1862 - Claude Debussy, French composer (d. 1918)
- 1867 - Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939)
- 1873 - Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928)
- 1874 - Max Scheler, German philosopher (d. 1928)
- 1880 - George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)
- 1893 - Dorothy Parker, American writer (d. 1967)
- 1900 - Sergei Ozhegov, Russian lexicographer (d. 1964)
- 1902 - Leni Riefenstahl, German film director (d. 2003)
- 1904 - Deng Xiaoping, leader of the People's Republic of China (d. 1997)
- 1908 - Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer (d. 2004)
- 1915 - Hugh Paddick, British actor (d. 2000)
- 1915 - Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and Prime Minister in exile (d. 2005)
- 1917 - John Lee Hooker, American guitarist and singer (d. 2001)
- 1920 - Ray Bradbury, American writer
- 1920 - Denton Cooley, American heart surgeon
- 1928 - Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer
- 1930 - Gilmar, Brazilian football player
- 1934 - Norman Schwarzkopf, U.S. general
- 1935 - E. Annie Proulx, American author
- 1938 - Paul Maguire, American football player
- 1939 - George Reinholt, American actor
- 1939 - Carl Yastrzemski, baseball player
- 1940 - Valerie Harper, American actress
- 1941 - Bill Parcells, American football coach
- 1942 - Kathy Lennon, American singer (The Lennon Sisters)
- 1947 - Cindy Williams, American actress
- 1955 - Will Shetterly, writer
- 1956 - Paul Molitor, baseball player
- 1957 - Steve Davis, English snooker player
- 1958 - Colm Feore, American-born actor
- 1958 - Vernon Reid, American musician (Living Colour)
- 1961 - Roland Orzabal, singer and guitarist (Tears for Fears)
- 1963 - Tori Amos, American singer, songwriter, and pianist
- 1964 - Mats Wilander, Swedish tennis player
- 1966 - GZA, American rapper
- 1967 - Layne Staley, American musician (Alice in Chains) (d. 2002)
- 1970 - Charlie Connelly, English writer
- 1973 - Howie Dorough, American singer (Backstreet Boys)
- 1977 - Heidar Helguson, Icelandic footballer

Deaths

- 408 - Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)
- 1155 - Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)
- 1188 - King Ferdinand II of Leon
- 1241 - Pope Gregory IX
- 1280 - Pope Nicholas III
- 1286 - Erik V Klipping, King of Denmark (murdered) (b. 1249)
- 1304 - John II, Count of Hainaut (b. 1247)
- 1350 - King Philip VI of France (b. 1293)
- 1485 - King Richard III of England (killed in battle) (b. 1452)
- 1553 - John Dudley, English admiral and politician (beheaded) (b. 1501)
- 1584 - Jan Kochanowski, Polish writer (b. 1530)
- 1599 - Beatrice Cenci, Italian noblewoman who conspired to murder her father (b. 1577)
- 1599 - Luca Marenzio, Italian composer
- 1607 - Bartholomew Gosnold, English explorer and privateer (b. 1572)
- 1609 - Maharal of Prague, Jewish mystic and philosopher (b. 1525)
- 1652 - Jacob De la Gardie, Swedish soldier and statesman (b. 1583)
- 1680 - John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)
- 1701 - John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English royalist statesman (b. 1628)
- 1711 - Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French marshal (b. 1644)
- 1752 - William Whiston, English mathematician (b. 1667)
- 1793 - Louis, 4th duc de Noailles, Marshal of France (b. 1713)
- 1797 - Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, Alsatian-born Austrian general (b. 1724)
- 1806 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French artist (b. 1732)
- 1818 - Warren Hastings, British Governor-General of India (b. 1732)
- 1823 - Lazare Carnot, French general, politician, and mathematician (b. 1753)
- 1828 - Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroscientist (b. 1758)
- 1850 - Nikolaus Lenau, Austrian poet (b. 1802)
- 1861 - Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)
- 1891 - Jan Neruda, Czech author (b. 1834)
- 1903 - Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830)
- 1904 - Kate Chopin, American author (b. 1851)
- 1918 - Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist (b. 1868)
- 1922 - Michael Collins, Irish revolutionary (ambushed) (b. 1890)
- 1926 - Charles W. Eliot, American President of Harvard University (b. 1834)
- 1942 - Michel Fokine, Russian choreographer and dancer (b. 1880)
- 1953 - Jim Tabor, baseball player (b. 1916)
- 1958 - Roger Martin du Gard, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
- 1976 - Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, President of Brazil (b. 1902)
- 1977 - Sebastian Cabot, English-born actor (b. 1918)
- 1978 - Jomo Kenyatta, first Prime Minister of Kenya
- 1989 - Huey P. Newton, American activist (b. 1942)
- 1991 - Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian actress (b. 1924)
- 2003 - Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss-born figure skating trainer (b. 1914)
- 2004 - Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player (b. 1960)
- 2005 - Luc Ferrari, French composer (b. 1929)

Holidays and observances

- RC feasts - Mary queen of angels

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/22 BBC: On This Day] ---- August 21 - August 23 - July 22 - September 22 -- listing of all days ko:8월 22일 ms:22 Ogos ja:8月22日 simple:August 22 th:22 สิงหาคม

1760

1760 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 9 - Afghans defeat Marathas in Battle of Barari Ghat.
- March 20 - The "Great Fire" of Boston destroys 349 buildings.
- June 4 - Great Upheaval: New England planters arrive to claim land in Nova Scotia Canada taken from the Acadians.
- July 8 - French and Indian War: Battle of the Ristigouche - British defeat French forces in last naval battle in New France.
- July 31 - The Anglo-Hanoverian army of Ferdinand of Brunswick storms Warburg, with a heroic role being played by the English commander Lord Granby.
- August 15 - Battle of Liegnitz - By a series of brilliant maneuvers, Frederick the Great manages to defeat the Austrian army of Marshal Loudon before it can unite with that of Marshal Daun.
- October 9 - Russian troops enter Berlin, but soon withdraw.
- October 16 - Battle of Kloster-Kamp - Ferdinand of Brunswick is beaten back from the Rhine by a French army.
- October 25 - Death of George II of Great Britain. His grandson George III ascends to the throne.
- November 3 - Battle of Torgau. In another extremely hard fought battle, Frederick defeats Daun's Austrians, who withdraw across the Elbe.
- Abu Dhabi is founded. (Approximate date)
- Tacky's rebellion occurs in Jamaica.
- Publication of Dr. James Fordyce's two-volume compendium Sermons for Young Women.

Ongoing events

- French and Indian War (1754-1763)
- Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

Births

- March 1 - François Nicolas Leonard Buzot, French Revolutionary leader (suicide) (d. 1794)
- April 30 - Joseph Souham, French general (d. 1837)
- May 10 - Johann Peter Hebel, German poet (d. 1826)
- May 28 - Alexandre, Vicomte de Beauharnais, French politician and general (d. 1794)
- August 22 - Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)
- September 14 - Luigi Cherubini, Italian composer (d. 1842)
- October 27 - August von Gneisenau, Prussian field marshal (d. 1831)
- Karl Bottiger, German archaeologist (d. 1835)

Deaths

- April 10 - Jean Lebeuf, French historian (b. 1687)
- May 5 - Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, English murderer (hanged) (b. 1720)
- May 9 - Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, German religious and social reformer (b. 1700)
- May 15 - Alaungpaya, King of Burma (b. 1711)
- May 22 - Israel ben Eliezer, Polish-born mystical rabbi (b. 1700)
- September 11 - Louis Godin, French astronomer (b. 1704)
- October 25 - King George II of Great Britain (b. 1683) Category:1760 ko:1760년

1829

1829 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 4 - Sir John Colborne, Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada founds Upper Canada College, as a feeder school to the newly formed University of Toronto and a home for the colony's upper class.
- January 8 - Hanging of body-selling murderer William Burke - his associate William Hare, who testified against him, is released
- January 19 - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust premieres
- March 4 - Andrew Jackson succeeds John Quincy Adams as the President of the United States of America.
- March 22 - Greece receives autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. This effectively ends the Greek War of Independence. Greece continues to seek full independence through diplomatic negotiations with the Empire as well as with Russia, France and Britain.
- May 2 - After anchoring nearby, Captain Charles Fremantle of the HMS Challenger, declared the Swan River Colony in Australia.
- June 5 - HMS Pickle captures the armed slave ship Voladora off the coast of Cuba.
- June 1 - Captain James Stirling founds the Swan River Colony in Western Australia.
- June 10 - University of Oxford win the first Boat Race.
- July 23 - In the United States, William Burt patents the first typewriter.
- August 8 - The Prince de Polignac succeeds the Vicomte de Martignac as Prime Minister of France.
- September 16 - Treaty of Adrianople ends the Russo-Turkish War. Russia gains territory at the mouth of the Danube and along the eastern coast of the Black Sea.
- October 1 - South African College founded in Cape Town, South Africa; later to become the University of Cape Town.
- October 8 - George Stephenson's steam locomotive, The Rocket, defeats John Ericsson's The Novelty and thus wins The Rainhill Trials held near Liverpool.
- October 17 - Hooded man tries to assassinate Kaspar Hauser
- December 4 - In the face of fierce opposition, British Lord William Bentinck carries a regulation declaring that all who abetted suttee in India were guilty of culpable homicide.
- December 13 - Last British hanging for forgery – Thomas Maynard
- Juan Manuel de Rosas becomes dictator of Argentina
- James Smithson leaves £100.000 to fund the Smithsonian Institution
- Peel's Metropolitan Police Act
- Religious freedom restored in Ireland (see History of Ireland)
- The last of the HMAV Bounty mutineers dies at Pitcairn Island.

Births

- January 3 - Konrad Duden, German philologist (d. 1911)
- January 21 - King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway (d. 1907)
- February 2 - Alfred Brehm, German zoologist (d. 1884)
- February 26 - Levi Strauss, American clothing designer (d. 1902)
- March 2 - Carl Schurz, German revolutionary and American statesman (d. 1906)
- March 16 - Sully Prudhomme, French author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907)
- May 5 - Shusaku Honinbo, Japanese Go player (d, 1862)
- May 8 - Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American composer and pianist (d. 1869)
- July 14 - Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1896)
- July 26 - Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert, Belgian statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1912)
- September 7 - Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, German chemist (d. 1896)
- October 3 - Sigismund von Schlichting, Prussian general (d. 1909)
- October 5 - Chester A. Arthur, 21st President of the United States (d. 1886)
- November 28 - Anton Rubinstein, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1894)

Deaths

- January 29 - Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras, French politician (b. 1755)
- February 10 - Pope Leo XII (b. 1760)
- April 6 - Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician (b. 1802)
- May 17 - John Jay, first Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1745)
- May 29 - Sir Humphry Davy, British chemist (b. 1778)
- June 27 - James Smithson, English founder of the Smithsonian Institute (b. 1765)
- December 28 - Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, French scientist (b. 1744)
- John Lansing, Jr., American statesman (disappeared) (b. 1754) Category:1829 ko:1829년 ms:1829 simple:1829

Pope

:This entry is about the Catholic Pontiff. For other uses of the word, see Pope (disambiguation). The pope is the Patriarch of the West and Bishop of Rome, and leader of the Catholic Church. The office of the pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the Holy See (Sancta Sedes). Early bishops of Rome were designated vicar (representative) of Peter; for later popes the more authoritative vicar of Christ was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman Synod of AD 495 to refer to Pope Gelasius I, an originator of papal supremacy among the patriarchs. The first Patriarch of Rome to bear the title of "Pope" was Pope Boniface III in 607, the first Bishop of Rome to assume the title of "universal Bishop" by decree of Emperor Phocas. Previous Patriarchs of Rome are called "Popes" by courtesy. In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the pope is also head of state of the independent sovereign State of the Vatican City, a city-state and nation entirely enclaved by the city of Rome. Prior to 1870, the pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of central Italy, the territory of the Papal States that was formally known as the "Patrimony of St Peter". Although the document on which the territorial powers of the Pontificate was based — the so-called Donation of Constantine — was proved a forgery in the 15th century, the papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the Italian Unification of 1870; a final political settlement with the Italian government was not reached until the Lateran Treaties of 1929. The current pope is Benedict XVI (born Joseph Ratzinger), who was elected at the age of 78 on 19 April 2005. He succeeds the late John Paul II, who was elected at the age of 58 in 1978. Pope Benedict XVI is the second non-Italian to be elected to the pontificate since Adrian VI, who was pope briefly in 1522-23 — John Paul II was the first — and is the first German to take the seat since the eleventh century (unless Adrian VI, who lived in Holland but came from German ancestors before Holland was separated from Germany, is counted as German rather than Dutch).

Office and nature

In canon law, the Catholic Pope is referred to as the Roman Pontiff (Pontifex Romanus). He is styled "Your Holiness" (Sanctitas Vestra) and is frequently referred to as the Holy Father. The title "Pope" is an informal one meaning "papa"; the formal title of the pope is "Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God". This full title is rarely used. The pope's signature is usually in the format "NN. PP. x" (e.g., Pope Paul VI signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for Papa ("Pope") (or, according to unofficial sources, Pater Patrum, "Father of Fathers"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the ancient title Pontifex Maximus, literally "Greatest Bridge-maker", but usually translated "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of Papal bulls is customarily NN. Episcopus Ecclesia Catholicae ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is NN. Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"), the latter title dating to the time of Pope Gregory I the Great. Other titles used in some official capacity include Summus Pontifex ("Highest Pontiff"), Sanctissimus Pater and Beatissimus Pater ("Most Holy Father" and "Most Blessed Father"), Sanctissimus Dominus Noster ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the Medieval period, Dominus Apostolicus ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the pope is still refered to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer, and in some translations of it. Medieval period]] The pope's official seat is the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, and his official residence is the Palace of the Vatican. He also possesses a summer palace at Castel Gandolfo (situated on the site of the ancient city-state Alba Longa). Historically the official residence of the pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantinus I. The former Papal summer palace, the Quirinal Palace, has subsequently been the official residence of the Kings of Italy and President of the Italian Republic. It is the pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) and not his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City) which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the pope's court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church. The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle St. Peter (see Apostolic Succession). Consequently Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378 the popes lived in Avignon (the Avignon Papacy), a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Israel. Catholic tradition maintains that the institution of the Pontificate can be found in the Bible, and cites certain key passages in support of this contention. Chief among these passages is Matthew 16: 18 – 19, wherein Jesus Christ says to St. Peter: :"Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jona! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." Other important passages include Luke 22: 31 – 32, John 1: 42, and John 21: 15 – 17.

Regalia and insignia

John 21: 15 – 17 Main article: Papal regalia and insignia.
- The "triregnum" also called the "tiara" or "triple crown"; recent popes have not, however, worn the triregnum though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies popes wear an episcopal mitre (an erect cloth hat).
- Staff topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the 13th century.
- The pallium (a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, worn over the chasuble about the neck, breast and shoulders and having two twelve-inch-long pendants hanging down in front and behind, ornamented with six small, black crosses distributed about the breast, back, shoulders, and pendants).
- The "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolises the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
- The Fisherman's Ring, a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.
- The umbracullum (better known in the Italian form ombrellino) is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes).
- One of the most familiar (and now discontinued) trappings of the Papacy was the sedia gestatoria, a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (palafrenieri) in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing flabella (fans made of white ostrich-feathers). The use of the sedia gestatoria and of the flabella was discontinued by Pope John Paul II, with the former being replaced by the so-called Popemobile. In heraldry, each pope has his own Papal Coat of Arms. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns and red infulae, or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colours of the Pontificate.

Status and authority

1808, 2005.]] The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council in its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (July 18, 1870). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter", and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of God was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the apostle was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole church militant; or that it was a primacy of honour only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be anathema." The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs", states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church", and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema." The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the primacy of the Roman pontiff," states that (s.1) "the definition of the ecumenical council of Florence, which must be believed by all faithful Christians, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a world-wide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "clergy and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world." The powers of the pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgement" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgement thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of Papal infallibility, sc. such that :when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" (Pope Boniface VIII). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam nulla salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many popes throughout the centuries. Blessed John XXIII said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter unless he be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved." Pope Paul VI also said: "Those outside the Church do not possess the Holy Spirit. The Catholic Church alone is the Body of Christ... and if separated from the Body of Christ he is not one of His members, nor is he fed by His Spirit." However, this dogma has been misinterpreted by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Many popes stressed that those who are invincibly ignorant of the Catholic religion can still obtain salvation. Pope Pius IX stated in his encyclical Quanto conficiamur moeror (1868): "We all know that those who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the natural law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." Pope John Paul II wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation." The pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint bishops to dioceses, erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman dicasteries, approve or veto their acts, modify the Liturgy and issue liturgical laws, revise the Code of Canon Law, canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the Roman Curia, with the pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the pope's discretion. See Donation of Constantine for discussion of the broader authority the papacy has argued the Catholic Church possesses in affairs of state.

Political role

Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452 and was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger donated to the pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called Papal States (properly the Patrimony of St. Peter). In 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date it became the pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor or any monarch with affiliations with the church until the crowning of Napoleon. As has been hitherto mentioned, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy. In addition to the pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost prince bishop of Christianity (especially prominent with the Renaissance popes like Pope Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III), the pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 (authorising Henry II of England to invade Ireland), the Bull Inter Caeteras in 1493 (leading to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule) the Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 (excommunicating Elizabeth I of England and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), the Bull Inter Gravissimas in 1582 (establishing the Gregorian Calendar).

Death, abdication, and election

Death

The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum — i.e., a sede vacante ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the "Reading Festival", the Sacred College of Cardinals, composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that needs the assent of the pope has to wait until a new pope has been elected and takes office. It has long been claimed that a pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A doctor may or may not have already determined that the pope had passed away prior to this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the Fisherman's Ring. Usually the ring is on the pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed. The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late pope.

Abdication

The Code of Canon Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P16.HTM 332 §2] states, If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone. It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper Corriere della Sera. Nevertheless, 332 §2 gave rise to speculation that either:
- Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
- a properly manifested legal instrument had already been drawn up that put into effect his resignation in the event of his incapacity to perform his duties. Pope John Paul II did not resign. He died on 2 April 2005 after suffering from many diseases and was buried on 8 April 2005. [http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&ned=us&q=Pope+Dead&btnG=Search+News Articles on the death of John Paul II] After his death it was reported that in his last will and testament he had considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday. However the language of that passage of the will is not clear and others have interpreted it differently.

Election

The pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. Pope Urban VI, elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the Dean of the College of Cardinals before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The Second Council of Lyons was convened on May 7, 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-Sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors. Traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. Pope John Paul II abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot. The election of the pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a meeting called a "conclave" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clavi, until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Assuming the number of ballots matches the number of electors, each ballot is then read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days). conclave following his coronation, a tradition which has now been discontinued.]] One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or fumata nera. (Traditionally wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (fumata bianca) through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI, church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen. The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto," his reign as pope begins at that instant, not at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and re-emerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio"), and to receive his blessing. The senior Cardinal Deacon then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name. Until 1978, the pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly-elected pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. There the pope was crowned with the triregnum and he gave his first blessing as pope, the famous Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus fades worldly glory"). Traditionally, the new pope takes the Papal oath (the so-called "Oath against modernism") at his coronation, but Popes John Paul I, John Paul II, and Benedict XVI have all refused to do so. The Latin term sede vacante ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name Sedevacantist, which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a Sede Vacante; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and especially the replacement of the Tridentine Mass with the Novus Ordo Missae are heretical, and that, per the dogma of Papal infallibility (see above), it is impossible for a valid pope to have done these things.

Objections to the Papacy

The pope's position as Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is dogmatic and therefore not open to debate or dispute within the Catholic Church; the First Vatican Council anathematised all who dispute the pope's primacy of honour and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). However, the pope's authority is not undisputed outside the Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as (1.) objections to the extent of the primacy of the pope; and (2.) objections to the institution of the Papacy itself. anathema Some non-Catholic Christian communities, such as the Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion, accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, and therefore accept (to varying extents) the papal claims to primacy of honour. However, these churches generally deny that the pope is the successor to St. Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop, or that St. Peter was ever bishop of Rome at all. The primacy is therefore regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire, a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon. In any event, these churches see no foundation at all to papal claims of universal jurisdiction. Because none of them recognise the First Vatican Council as ecumenical, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction and infallibility (and anathematisation of those who do not accept them) as invalid. Other non-Catholic Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, or do not understand it in hierarchical terms, and therefore do not accept the claim that the pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honour or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction or they reject both claims of honor or jurisdiction as unscriptural. The Papacy's complex relationship with the Roman and Byzantine Empires, and other secular states, and the Papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the monarchical character of the office of pope. In Western Christianity, these objections — and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in — both contributed to, and are products of, the Protestant Reformation. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the pope's authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the pope is the Antichrist or one of the beasts spoken of in the Book of Revelation. These denominations tend to be more heterogeneous amongst themselves than the aforementioned hierarchical churches, and their views regarding the Papacy and its institutional legitimacy (or lack thereof) vary considerably. Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office. For instance, some argue that claimed successors to St. Peter, like Alexander VI and Callixtus III from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle Judas Iscariot, and even St. Peter after he denied Jesus). They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that this is evidence that the office is divinely protected. Some objectors to the papacy occasionally refer to the Catholic Church and its members by the pejorative term papist to point up what they believe to be an inappropriate focus of attention on the office and an improper attribution of certain divine favors ex officio.

Other Popes

An antipope is a person who claims the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church, or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see Papal Schism). "The Black Pope" is a derogatory name given to the Superior General of the Society of Jesus due to the Jesuits' practice of wearing black cassocks (compared to the pope's always wearing white robes), and to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff. The heads of the Coptic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria are also called "popes" for historical reasons, the former being called "Coptic Pope" or "Pope of Alexandria" and the latter called "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa"; the parallel construction "Pope of Rome" is frequently used in the Eastern churches. In Islam, the former office of Caliph held similar meaning, as the leader of all Muslims, subordinate only to the prophet Muhammad.

External links

- [http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See]
- [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM Code of Canon Law] – Vatican site
- [http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/20ecume3.htm The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ], Fourth Session of the First Vatican Council
- [http://web.globalserve.net/~bumblebee/ecclesia/patriarchs.htm Eastern Church Defends Petrine Primacy and the Papacy]
- [http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/ The Pope Blog] – Unofficial weblog about the pope
- [http://popetribute.com/ Pope Tribute] – A tribute to the pope, present and past
- [http://www.papst-benedikt.be Pope Benedict XVI and other Popes] (germ.)
- [http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/papalinfo.htm Papal information] News about ongoing Papal Events
- [http://www.punditguy.com/2005/04/german_pope.html Pope Election News Roundup]
- [http://www.angelfire.com/tv2/benedictxvi/ Cardinal Jorge Arturo Medina Estevez announcing Habemus Papam (We have a Pope!)] (Windows Media Player Video).
- [http://www.americancatholic.org/news/BenedictXVI/ American Catholic - Pope Benedict XVI Starts His Papacy]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/pope/story/0,12272,1452750,00.html Swiss Watchers - article about the Papal Guards in THE GUARDIAN]
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- Category:Ecclesiastical titles als:Papst ko:교황 ms:Paus (Katholik) ja:ローマ教皇 simple:Pope th:พระสันตะปาปา

1823

1823 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- February 3 - First representation of Gioacchino Rossini's Semiramide
- July 15 - Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome almost completely destroyed by fire
- September 10 - Simón Bolívar named President of Peru
- December 2 - Monroe Doctrine: USA separates the spheres of influence between Europe and the Americas.
- Ferdinand VII revokes the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and restores absolute monarchy (See also Mid-nineteenth century Spain)
- The Olbers' paradox is described by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers.

Births

- January 1 - Sándor Petőfi, Hungarian poet and revolutionary (d. 1849)
- January 8 - Alfred Russel Wallace, British naturalist and biologist (d. 1913)
- January 27 - Edouard Lalo, French composer (d. 1892)
- February 27 - Ernest Renan, French philosopher and writer (d. 1892)
- March 14 - Théodore de Banville, French writer (d. 1891)
- March 20 - Ned Buntline, American publisher, writer, and publicist (d. 1886)
- March 23 - Schuyler Colfax, Vice President of the United States (d. 1885)
- April 3 - William Marcy Tweed, American political boss (d. 1878)
- April 23 - Abd-ul-Mejid, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1861)
- June 21 - Jean Chacornac, French astronomer (d. 1873)
- August 13 - Goldwin Smith, English historian (d. 1910)
- December 6 - Friedrich Max Müller, German Orientalist (d. 1900)
- James Black, American temperance movement leader (d 1893)

Deaths

- January 26 - Edward Jenner, English physician and medical researcher (b. 1749)
- February 7 - Ann Radcliffe, English writer (b. 1764)
- March 14 - Charles François Dumouriez, French general (b. 1739)
- June 1 - Louis Nicolas Davout, French marshal (b. 1770)
- August 20 - Pope Pius VII (b. 1740)
- August 22 - Lazare Carnot, French general, politician, and mathematician (b. 1753)
- September 11 - David Ricardo, English economist (b. 1772)

Genga

Genga is a town and comune of Ancona province in the Italian region of the Marche, at , at 320 m (1050 ft) above sea-level, on the Sentino river about 7 km (4 mi) downstream and E of Sassoferrato; and 12 km N of Fabriano. According to the 2003 census, Genga's population was 1,967. The town is best known as the ancestral home of the noble family of the della Genga, the most famous member of which was Pope Leo XII; its chief monuments are the early medieval church, in the Byzantine style, at S. Vittore alle Chiuse, and the Roman bridge in the same hamlet, about 8 km SE of town. The caves of Frasassi, about 5 km SSE, are among the most visited natural curiosities in central Italy. Category:Towns in the Marche

Ancona

Ancona is a city and a seaport in the Marche, a region of northeastern Italy, population 100,507 (2001). Ancona is situated on the Adriatic Sea and is the center of an eponymous province and the capital of the region. The city is located 133 miles northeast of Rome and 127 miles southeast of Bologna. The name Ancona means "elbow" (from Greek
- ankon 'elbow'), referring to the shape of its geographical position. We can find similar references to the shape of the human body in other cities with similar geo-morphological features, like Genova and Geneva (which names originate from the Proto-Indo-European
- genu, meaning 'knee'). The town is finely situated on and between the slopes of the two extremities of the promontory of Monte Conero, Monte Astagno, occupied by the citadel, and Monte Guasco, on which the Duomo stands (300 feet). The latter, dedicated to St Judas Cyriacus, is said to occupy the site of a temple of Venus, who is mentioned by Catullus and Juvenal as the tutelary deity of the place.

Ancona sights

Cathedral church of S. Ciriaco

The cathedral was consecrated in 1128 and completed in 1189. Some writers suppose that the original church was in the form of a Latin cross and belonged to the 8th century. An early restoration was completed in 1234. It is a fine Romanesque building in grey stone, built in the form of a Greek cross, with a dodecagonal dome over the center slightly altered by Margaritone d'Arezzo in 1270. The façade has a Gothic portal, ascribed to Giorgio da Como (1228), which was intended to have a lateral arch on each side. The interior, which has a crypt under each transept, in the main preserves its original character. It has ten columns which are attributed to the temple of Venus, and there are good screens of the 12th century, and other sculptures. The church was beautifully restored in the 1980s.

Other monuments

The marble Arch of Trajan, 61 feet high, erected in 114/115 CE as an entrance to the causeway atop the harbor wall in honor of the emperor who had made the harbor, is one of the finest Roman monuments in the Marche. Most of its original bronze enrichments have disappeared. It stands on a high podium approached by a wide flight of steps. The archway, only 10 ft wide, is flanked by pairs of fluted Corinthian columns on pedestals. An attic bears inscriptions. The format is that of the Arch of Titus in Rome, but made taller, so that the bronze figures surmounting it, of Trajan, his wife Plotina and sister Marciana, would figure as a landmark for ships approaching Rome's greatest Adriatic port.
- [http://www.marcheworldwide.org/html/trajan.asp?lingua=en The Arch of Trajan] The Lazzaretto (Laemocomium or "Mole Vanvitelliana"), planned by architect Luigi Vanvitelli in 1732. It is a pentagonal building covering more than 20,000 sq.m., built to protect the military defensive authorities from the risk of contagious diseases eventually reaching the town with the ships. Later it was used also as a military hospital or as barracks; it is currently used for cultural exhibits. In the dilapidated episcopal palace Pope Pius II died in 1464. An interesting church is S. Maria della Piazza, with an elaborate arcaded façade (1210). The Palazzo del Comune, with its lofty arched substructures at the back, was the work of Margaritone d'Arezzo, but has been since twice restored. There are also several fine late Gothic buildings, among them the churches of S. Francesco and S. Agostino, the Palazzo Benincasa, the Palazzo del Senato, and the Loggia dei Mercanti, all by Giorgio Orsini, usually called da Sebenico (who worked much at Sebenico, though he was not a native of it), and the prefecture, which has Renaissance additions. The portal of S. Maria della Misericordia is an ornate example of early Renaissance work. The archaeological museum contains interesting pre-Roman (Picene) objects from tombs in the district, and two Roman beds with fine decorations in ivory.

History

The ancient town was founded by refugees from Syracuse about 390 BC, who gave it its name: Ancona is a very slightly modified transliteration of the Greek Αγκων, meaning "elbow"; the harbor to the east of the town was originally protected only by the promontory on the north, shaped like an elbow. Greek merchants established a Tyrian purple factory here (Sil. Ital. viii. 438). In Roman times it kept its own coinage with the punning device of the bent arm holding a palm branch, and the head of Aphrodite on the reverse, and continued the use of the Greek language. When it became a Roman colony is doubtful. It was occupied as a naval station in the Illyrian war of 178 BC (Liv. xli. i). Julius Caesar took possession of it immediately after crossing the Rubicon. Its harbour was of considerable importance in imperial times, as the nearest to Dalmatia, and was enlarged by Trajan, who constructed the north quay, his architect being Apollodorus of Damascus. At the beginning of it stands the marble triumphal arch with a single archway, and without bas-reliefs, erected in his honour in 115 by the senate and people. After the fall of the Roman empire Ancona, was successively attacked by the Goths, Lombards and Saracens, but recovered its strength and importance. It was one of the cities of the Pentapolis under the exarchate of Ravenna, the other four being Fano, Pesaro, Se