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Atmosfera

Atmosfera

Atmosfera ima više značenja:
- Zemljina atmosfera
- atmosfera (plinoviti omotač) nebeskog tijela
- standardna atmosfera, stara mjerna jedinica za tlak
- tehnička atmosfera, stara mjerna jedinica za tlak
- mješavina plinova ili umjetna atmosfera
- ambijent ili ugođaj

Zemljina atmosfera

Zemljina atmosfera je sloj plinova koji okružuju planet Zemlju i kojeg zadržava Zemljina gravitacija. Sadrži oko četiri petine dušika i jednu petinu kisika, dok su količine ostalih plinova neznatne ili u tragovima. Atmosfera štiti život na Zemlji apsorbirajući ultraljubičasto sunčevo zračenje i smanjujući temperaturne ekstreme između dana i noći. noći Atmosfera ne završava naglo. Ona polagano postaje tanja i postepeno nestaje u svemiru. Ne postoji konačna granica između atmosfere i vanjskog svemira. Tri četvrtine mase atmosfere nalazi se unutar 11 km od površine planeta. U SAD-u se osoba koja putuje iznad visine od 80 km naziva astronautom. Visina od 120 km označava granicu gdje atmosferski utjecaji postaju vidljivi tijekom ulaska svemirske letjelice u atmosferu. Također se često kao granicu atmosfere i svemira uzima Karman linija na udaljenosti od 100 km od površine.

Temperatura i atmosferski slojevi

Temperatura Zemljine atmosfere se mijenja s visinom. Između različitih atmosferskih slojeva mijenja se matematički odnos temperature i visine:
- troposfera: od površine do 7 km ili 17 km ovisno o širini vremenskim faktorima, temperatura se smanjuje s visinom.
- stratosfera: od 7–17 km do oko 50 km, temperatura se povećava s visinom.
- mezosfera: od oko 50 km do 80–85 km, temperatura se smanjuje s visinom.
- termosfera: od 80–85 km do 640+ km, temperatura se povećava s visinom. Granice među tim slojevima nazivaju se tropopauza, stratopauza i mezopauza. Prosječna temperatura atmosfere na površini Zemlje iznosi 14 °C.

Pritisak

Atmosferski pritisak je izravna posljedica težine zraka. To znači da se pritisak zraka razlikuje s mjestom i vremenom jer se količina (i težina) zraka iznad Zemlje isto tako razlikuju. Atmosferski pritisak se smanjuje za ~50% na visini od oko 5 km (jednako se i oko 50% ukupne mase atmosfere nalazi unutar najnižih 5 km). Prosječni atmosferski pritisak izmjeren na morskoj razini iznosi oko 101.3 kilopaskala.

Sastav

kilopaskala
Postotni sastav suhe atmosfere,
po obujmu - ppmv: dijelova po milijunu obujma
Plinpo NASA-i
Dušik78.084%
Kisik20.946%
Argon0.9340%
Ugljikov dioksid365 ppmv
Neon18.18 ppmv
Helij5.24 ppmv
Metan1.745 ppmv
Kripton1.14 ppmv
Vodik0.55 ppmv
U gornji sastav suhe atmosfere
nije uključena:
Vodena paraPromjenjive količine;
obično čini oko 1%
Ugljikov dioksid i metan su ispravljeni prema IPCC TAR tablici 6.1 iz 1998. godine.
Manje sastavnice zraka koje nisu gore navedene uključuju: dušikov oksid (0.5 ppmv), ksenon (0.09 ppmv), ozon (0.0 do 0.07 ppmv, 0.0 do 0.02 ppmv zimi), dušikov dioksid (0.02 ppmv), jod (0.01 ppmv), ugljikov monoksid (0.0 u tragovima), i amonijak (0.0 u tragovima). Srednja molekulska masa zraka iznosi 28.97 g/mol.

Heterosfera

Ispod visine od oko 100 km Zemljina atmosfera ima više-manje jednoličan sastav (osim vodene pare) kao što je iznad opisano. Iznad oko 100 km Zemljina atmosfera ipak počinje imati sastav koji se mijenja s visinom. To je bitno jer u odsustvu miješanja gustoća plina pada eksponencijalno s porastom visine, ali po stopi koja ovisi o molekulskoj masi. Stoga sastavnice veće mase (kisik i dušik) padaju brže nego lakše sastavnice (helij, molekularni i atomarni vodik). Stoga postoji sloj nazvan heterosfera u kojoj Zemljina atmosfera ima različit sastav. Kako se visina povećava u atmosferi postepeno prevladava helij, molekularni i atomarni vodik. Precizna visina heterosfere i slojeva od kojih je sastavljena mijenja se značajno s temperaturom.

Gustoća i masa

Gustoća zraka na morskoj razini iznosi oko 1.2 kg/m3. Kao posljedice vremena javljaju se prirodne razlike u barometrijskom pritisku na bilo kojoj visini. Ta razlika je relativno malena za naseljene visine ali je mnogo više izražena u vanjskoj atmosferi i svemiru zahvaljujući promjenjivom sunčevom zračenju. Gustoća atmosfere se smanjuje s povećanjem visine. Ta se razlika može približno prikazati upotrebom barometrijske formule. Meteorolozi i svemirske agencije koriste sofisticiranije modele za predviđanje vremena i orbitalnih propadanja satelita. Ukupna masa atmosfere iznosi oko 5.1 × 1018 kg, ili oko 0.9 ppm Zemljine ukupne mase. Gornji postotci sastava atmosfere napravljeni su s obzirom na obujam. Pretpostavljajući da se plinovi ponašaju kao idealni plinovi, mogu se dodati postotci p pomnoženi s njihovim molarnim masama m, da se dobije ukupno u = zbroj (p•m). Tada je bilo koji postotak elementa po masi p•m/t. Kada se to primjeni na gornje postotke dobije se da je sastav atmosfere prema masi 75.523% N2, 23.133% O2, 1.288% Ar, 0.053% CO2, 0.001267% Ne, 0.00029% CH4, 0.00033% Kr, 0.000724% He i 0.0000038 % H2. 500px Ovaj grafikon je prema NRLMSISE-00 atmosferskom modelu koji kao ulazne podatke ima: širinu, dužinu, datum, vrijeme dana, visinu, sunčevu struju te dnevni indeks Zemljinog magnetskog polja.

Različita područja u atmosferi

Područja u atmosferi nazvana su na sljedeći način:
- ionosfera — područje koje sadrži ione: približno odgovara mezosferi i termosferi do 550 km.
- egzosfera — iznad ionosfere gdje atmosfera nestaje u svemiru.
- magnetosfera — područje gdje je Zemljino magnetsko polje u interakciji sa sunčevim vjetrom. Prostire se desecima tisuća kilometara, s dugačkim repom okrenutim od Sunca.
- ozonski sloj — ili ozonosfera, približno 10 - 50 km, gdje se nalazi stratosferski ozon. Treba se napomenuti da je čak i unutar ove regije ozon prema obujmu manja sastavnica. gornja atmosfera — područje atmosfere iznad mezopauze.
- Van Allenovi pojasevi zračenja — područja gdje čestice sa Sunca postaju koncentrirane.

Evolucija Zemljine atmosfere

Van Allenovi pojasevi zračenja O povijesti Zemljine atmosfere prije milijardu godina slabo se zna, ali slijedeće predstavlja vjerojatan slijed događaja. Kako god bilo to još uvijek ostaje područje istraživanja. Današnja atmosfera se ponekad odnosi na Zemljinu "treću atmosferu" kao bi se razlikovao trenutačni kemijski sastav od dva značajno različita prijašnja sastava. Prvotna atmosfera se sastojala od vodika i helija. Toplina (iz rastaljene kore i sa Sunca) je raspršila atmosferu. Oko prije 3.5 milijardi godina površina se dovoljno ohladila da se oblikuje zemljina kora koja se još uvijek sastojala od brojnih vulkana koji s ispuštali paru, ugljični dioksid i amonijak. To je dovelo do stvaranja "druge atmosfere" koja je u početku bila sastavljena od ugljičnog dioksida i vodene pare uz nešto dušika ali praktički bez kisika. (Iako nedavne simulacije iz 2005. provedene na Sveučilištima u Waterloou i Coloradu pokazuju da je mogla imati i do 40% vodika.) Ta je druga atmosfera imala ~100 puta više plinova od trenutačne atmosfere. Općenito se vjeruje da je efekt staklenika, uzrokovan visokim razinama ugljičnog dioksida, čuvao Zemlju od smrzavanja. Tijekom sljedećih nekoliko milijardi godina vodena se para kondenzirala pa je stvorila kišu i oceane koji su počeli otapati ugljični dioksid. Oceani su apsorbirali približno 50% ugljičnog dioksida. Jedna od najranijih vrsta bakterija bile su cijanobakterije. Foslini dokaz pokazuje da su te bakterije postojale prije približno 3.3 milijardi godina i da su bile prvi evoluirajući fototropni organizmi koji su proizvodili kisik. One su odgovorne za prvotnu pretvorbu Zemljine atmosfere iz anoksidnog (stanje bez kisika) u oksidno (s kisikom) stanje. Kako su cijanobakterije bile prve koje su započele fotosintezu kisika, mogle su promijeniti ugljični dioksid u kisik pa su odigrale glavnu ulogu u oksigenaciji atmosfere. Fotosintetizirajuće biljke su evoluirale te su i one počele sve više pretvarati ugljični dioksid u kisik. S vremenom je višak ugljika postao zatvoren u fosilnim gorivima, sedimentnim stijenama (vapnenac) i životinjskim ljušturama. Kad se kisik oslobodio, reagirao je s amonijakom te stvorio dušik; štoviše su i bakterije pretvarale amonijak u dušik. Pojavom sve više biljaka razina kisika se značajno povećala (dok se razina ugljičnog dioksida smanjila). U početku se kisik spajao s različitim elementima (npr. željezom) da bi se na kraju akumulirao u atmosferi — rezultirajući masovnim izumiranjem i daljnjom evolucijom. Pojavom ozonskog sloja (ozon je alotrop kisika) životni su uvjeti bili bolje zaštićeni od ultraljubičastog zračenja. Ova atmosfera od kisika i dušika čini "treću atmosferu".

Više informacija


- Atmosferski elektricitet
- Efekt staklenika
- Globalno zatopljenje
- Zapisi temperatura tijekom prošlosti
- Zrak Category: Klimatologija ko:대기권 ms:Atmosfera ja:大気

Nebesko tijelo

Pod pojmom nebeskih tijela podrazumijevamo objekte u svemiru: zvijezde, planete, asteroide, prirodne satelite. Category: Astronomija

Tehnička atmosfera

Tehnička atmosfera (oznaka at) je stara mjerna jedinica za tlak iz MKpS sustava. 1 at = 98 066.5 Pa Postoji i Standardna atmosfera, također stara jedinica za tlak, s oznakom "atm", a odnos ove dvije jedinice je slijedeći: 1 atm = 1.033 227 453 at Category: Jedinice

Plin

Plin je tvar u plinovitom agregatnom stanju. U takvom stanju, molekule tvari imaju dovoljnu unutarnju energiju da se oslobode iz stabilne strukture. Temperatura pri kojoj tvar prelazi u plinovito stanje naziva se vrelište. category:fizika category:kemija ko:기체 ms:Gas ja:気体 simple:Gas

Mengela

Josef Mengele, M.D., Ph.D. (March 16, 1911–February 7, 1979) was a Nazi German physician who performed experiments that were condemned as murderously sadistic on prisoners in Auschwitz during World War II. He personally selected over 400,000 prisoners to die in gas chambers in Auschwitz. After the war he escaped Germany and lived covertly abroad until his eventual accidental death in Brazil, which was later confirmed using DNA testing on his remains. Mengele's nickname was Beppo; he was called Todesengel (Angel of Death) by camp inmates.

Early life

Mengele was born in Günzburg, Bavaria, eldest of three sons of Karl Mengele (1881–1959), a well-to-do industrialist, and his wife Wilma(d.1946). He had two younger brothers, Karl (1912–1949) and Alois (1914–1974). In 1926, Mengele was diagnosed with osteomyelitis, a bacterial infection of bone and bone marrow which causes inflammation and can lead to a reduction of blood supply to the bone. He studied medicine and anthropology at the University of Munich, the University of Vienna and the University of Bonn. At Munich he obtained a doctorate in Anthropology (Ph.D.) with a dissertation in 1935 on racial differences in the structure of the lower jaw, supervised by Prof. Theodor Mollison. After his exams he went to Frankfurt, working as an assistant to Otmar von Verschuer at the Frankfurt University Institute of Hereditary Biology and Racial Hygiene. In 1938 he obtained a doctorate in medicine (M.D.) with a dissertation called "Familial Research on Cleft Lip, Palate and Jaw". In 1932, at the age of 21, Mengele joined the Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten (Steel Helmet, League of Front Soldiers); this organization was incorporated into the SA in 1933, but Mengele resigned shortly thereafter, alluding to health problems. He applied for Nazi party membership in 1937 and in 1938 he joined the SS. In 1939, Mengele married his first wife, Irene Schoenbein. From 1938 to 1939 he served for six months with a specially trained Gebirgsjäger regiment. In 1940 he was placed in the reserve medical corps, following which he served with a Waffen-SS unit, the multi-national SS-Division (mot.) Wiking. In 1942 he was wounded at the Russian front and was pronounced medically unfit for combat, and promoted to the rank of SS-Hauptsturmführer (Captain). Mengele also received an Iron Cross first class and an Iron Cross second class for bravery in combat. His Iron Cross first class was awarded after then SS-Ostuf. Mengele, under enemy fire, pulled two panzer crewmen out of a burning tank, thus saving their lives. His other awards include the Wound Badge, and the Medal for the Care of the German People.

Auschwitz

His next assignment was at Auschwitz, where he replaced another doctor who had fallen ill. On May 24, 1943 he became medical officer of Auschwitz-Birkenau's so-called gypsy camp. In August 1944, this camp was liquidated and all its inmates gassed. Subsequently Mengele became Chief Medical Officer of the main infirmary camp at Birkenau. He was not, though, the Chief Medical Officer of Auschwitz - superior to him was SS-Standortarzt (garrison physician) Eduard Wirths. It was during his 21-month stay at Auschwitz that Mengele achieved infamy, and it is for this period that he was later referred to as the "Angel of Death". Mengele was usually part of the medical delegation which met incoming prisoners, determining which would be retained for work and experimentation, and which would be sent immediately to the gas chambers. Mengele had a morbid fascination with twins; beginning in 1943, twins were selected and placed in special barracks. Most of the children selected for these experiments came from the Roma being held at Auschwitz. Almost all of Mengele's experiments were of dubious scientific value, ignoring the lack of ethics involved, including attempts to change eye color by injecting chemicals into children's eyes, various amputations and other brutal surgeries, and in at least one case attempting to create an artificial conjoined twin by sewing the veins in two twins together; this operation was not successful and only caused the hands of the children to become badly infected. Another dubious experiment that he purportedly tried involved submerging subjects into boiling cauldrons of water so as to see how much heat the human body could take before death. Subjects of Mengele's experiments were almost always murdered afterward for dissection, if they survived the experiment itself. Mengele also had found interest in dwarfs, finding the Lilliput Troupe, seven of whose ten members were dwarfs. He often called them "his dwarf family" and experimented on them often. He was fascinated at their structure, why they had smaller limbs yet a normal-sized trunk. They seemed vital to his research and he had them treated specially - they were allowed to keep their clothes, scarves and accessories they had from their home. Mengele had even given them make-up to wear on more than one occasionÈ.

After the war

Mengele left Auschwitz and went to Gross-Rosen concentration camp. In April 1945, he fled westward disguised as a member of the regular German infantry. He was captured as a POW and held near Nuremberg. He was released by the Allies, who had no idea that he was in their midst. After hiding as a farm labourer in Upper Bavaria, Mengele departed for Argentina in 1949, where many other fleeing Nazi officials had also sought refuge. Mengele divorced his wife Irene, and in 1958 married his brother Karl's widow, Martha. She and her son moved to Argentina to join Mengele for a time, although both returned to Europe only a few years later. His family at home backed him financially and he prospered in the 1950s, first operating a toy-workshop and later as an associate in a small pharmaceutical enterprise. After this short period, however, Mengele lived rather poorly. In 1959 he fled to Altos, Paraguay when his address was discovered by Nazi-hunters. Martha never managed to adjust to her new life and left him. Mengele later moved south to Hohenau and then from late 1960 he lived in the São Paulo region of Brazil until his death in 1979, when he suffered a stroke while swimming at a beach near Embu, Brazil and drowned. Despite international efforts to track him down, he was never apprehended and lived for 35 years hiding under various aliases. Adolf Eichmann's capture and trial by Israel prompted Mengele's fears and frequent movements, and Mossad tracked him for a time, but Israel's efforts were directed towards normalizing relations with Paraguay and fighting enemies closer to home. He was not tracked down by Nazi hunters until June 6, 1985, when his body was found and identified after a combined effort of American, West German and South American authorities. In 1992, DNA tests confirmed his identity. Mengele has a daughter born to an Australian woman of German lineage after a liaison between the two when the woman, aged 23, visited the German Colony Colonia Independencia in Paraguay in mid-1960 along with her mother and brother. In September, 1960, Mengele decided that capture by the Israelis was inevitable as long as he stayed in Paraguay. He resolved to begin a new life elsewhere. The choice was Brazil. "The strong change in my surroundings will definitely be mirrored in my writings," he wrote in a diary. For a month there were no diary entries. "So much happened in this time," Later this was determined to mean the discovery that he was to be the father of a second child, who he knew he would never see. Mengele wrote. "For a certain reason that I cannot explain, I cannot write about it." His child, was born four weeks premature, in Melbourne, Australia on March 10, 1961. Her name was recorded as "Marion" on her birth certificate, but was changed when she was adopted privately in August of that year. Eighty-five previously unreleased letters and diaries written by Mengele were discovered in late 2004. They had been seized in a 1985 raid on the home of Wolfram and Liselotte Bossert, who had harbored the fugitive Mengele until his death.

In fiction

Mengele has also been used as a fictionalized literary and movie character, featured prominently in The Boys from Brazil (portrayed by Gregory Peck) and as part of an amalgam of Nazi doctors in Marathon Man. He was the subject matter of the song "Angel of Death", the opening track on Slayer's 1986 album, Reign in Blood. He was also the subject of a song by Al Stewart called, Running Man, from his 1980 album, 24 Carrots The character of Diana in the 1983 NBC science-fiction miniseries V is also attributed to him. He also featured in the BBC series, Kessler, which was a spin-off of the popular BBC series, The Secret Army; many of his acts of torture are recounted in Ilsa: She-Wolf of the SS. He was one of the lead characters in the movie Out Of The Ashes, starring Bruce Davison and Christine Lahti.

See also


- The Holocaust
- Nazi human experimentation
- Doctors' Trial

External links


- [http://www.mengele.dk/ Josef Mengele, The Angel Of Death]
- [http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/history/mengele/index_1.htm A detailed profile in the Crime Library]
- [http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/blmengele.htm A timeline of his life]
- [http://www.posner.com/articles/mengele.htm Chicago Tribune Magazine: "How Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele cheated justice for 34 years"] by Gerald Posner and John Ware
- [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-263-cia-records/rg-263-report.html?template=print Declassified U.S. CIA information on Mengele and other NSDAP war criminals] Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef Mengele, Josef ja:ヨーゼフ・メンゲレ

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