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Stabbursdalen

Stabbursdalen

Stabbursdalen is a National Park in Norway. It contains the northern-most Pine Forest in the world. It is located in Porsanger, Norway

The National Park

The Stabbursdalen National Park contains many of Finnmark`s typical landscape forms: barren mountains, open plateaux and narrow ravines, with scattered mountain birch and stretches of pine forest. Waterfalls and rapids interspersed with deep pools of still wather mark the Stabbur river as it runs through the National Park. At Luobbal (Lompola) it sweeps gently into wide bays. The bare rugged mountains of Gaissene to the south-east contrast with the ancient undulating landscape to the north and west.

The Pine Forest

Some 7 500 - 5 000 years ago when the climate was warmer, the pine forest spread far inland along the fjords and valleys. As it grew colder, the forest retreated and has only survived in sheltered valleys like Stabbursdalen, where it forms the world`s northernmost pine forest ([http://met.no/observasjoner/finnmark/normaler_for_kommune_2020.html?kommuner Porsanger climate]). It's protection is therefore one of the major objectives of this national park. The woodland is open with low shrubby pine trees. Here in the far north, trees grow slowly and are liable to frost and wind damage. The dry sterile soil can only support a poor undergrowth of lichen and heather. At Loubbal the wetlands form a fertile oasis in an otherwise barren landschape. Along the river, willow and sedge, with pine woodland behind, support a rich bird life. Stabbursdalen is the most northernly habitat for many species, including black grouse and ospery, and wetlands are important breeding ground, especially for ducks. Old hollow pine trees provid good nesting places for the goldeneye and goosander.

People in the park

For the coastal Saami people sjøsamene, the natural resourses of Stabbursdalen formed a significant part of their subsistence. Hunting, fishing and collecting animal fodder have long traditions, but by careful harvesting few traces remain in the landscape. In Luobbal, sedge was previously cut for winter fodder, while tree stumps in the forest bear witness of timber cut for building boats and houses. There are remains of pit-falls where wild reindeer were hunted in the past, but domestic reindeer herding took over in the 17th century. Today, the area provides summer grazing for the reindeer.

Local rules

You may walk and camp anywhere in the national park hunt certain species with a licenseand fish with a license use fallen dead wood for camp fires, but please use previous campfire sites by the river and remember the fire risk You may not damage plants or disturb animals cut down hollow trees or break off dead branches light fires between 15th April and 15th September use motorised vehicles Category:National parks of Norway

Norway

The Kingdom of Norway (Norwegian: Kongeriket Norge / Kongeriket Noreg) is a Nordic country on the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, bordering Sweden, Finland and Russia, with territorial waters bordering Danish and British waters. Norway's extensive coastline along the North Atlantic Ocean is home to its famous fjords. The country has a very elongated shape. The arctic island territories of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are under Norwegian sovereignty and are part of the Kingdom. Bouvet Island in the South Atlantic Ocean and Peter I Island in the South Pacific Ocean are also external dependencies, but these are not considered part of the Kingdom. Additionally, Norway has a claim for Dronning Maud Land in Antarctica.

History

In the 9th century Norway consisted of a number of petty kingdoms. According to tradition, Harald Fairhair gathered the small kingdoms into one and in 872 with the battle of Hafrsfjord, he established a feudal state. The Viking age (8th to 11th centuries) was one of national unification and expansion. The Norwegians settled on Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and parts of the British Islands and attempted to settle at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada (perhaps the Vinland of The Saga of Eric the Red). Norwegians founded the modern day Irish cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford and captured the Anglo-Saxon city of Eoforwic renaming it Jorvik, today known as York. The Norwegian Rollo invaded and was ceded Normandy by the French king Charles the Simple in 911. Rollo's great-great-great-grandson William the Conqueror successfully invaded and conquered England in 1066. The Norwegian royal line died out in 1387, partly because of the grand recession after the black plague in 1349, wiping out the majority of the population, and partly because Queen Margrethe's son, heir to the throne, died at barely 17 years of age. The country entered a long period as the weaker part of a union first with Denmark and Sweden – the Kalmar Union – then with Denmark. Margrethe was also queen of Denmark and Sweden. With the forced introduction of Protestantism in 1537, Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of Saint Olav at the Nidaros shrine. With them, ironically, went much of the contact with the cultural and economical life of the rest of Europe. Also, the 17th century saw Norway's total area decrease with the loss of the territories Bohuslän, Jämtland and Härjedalen to Sweden. In the light of national romanticism during the 19th century, this period was by some called the "400-year night". After Denmark-Norway sided with Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway was ceded to the king of Sweden in 1814. However, Norway declared her independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models and elected the Danish prince Christian Fredrik as king on 17 May 1814. Norway was forced into a personal union with Sweden, but kept its liberal constitution and independent institutions, except for the foreign service. Growing Norwegian dissatisfaction with the union during the late 19th century, national romanticism, growing national culture, literature (Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson), painting (Hans Gude, Adolph Tiedemand), and music (Edvard Grieg) spawned the dissolution of the union on 7 June 1905. The Norwegian government offered the throne of Norway to Danish Prince Carl. After a referendum confirming the monarchy, the Parliament unanimously elected him king. He took the name of Haakon VII, after the medieval kings of independent Norway. In 1913, Norwegian women gained suffrage. Norway was a neutral country during World War I. Norway also attempted to claim neutrality during World War II, but was invaded by German forces on the 9th of April 1940 (Operation Weserübung). The Allies also had plans to invade Norway, in order to take advantage of her strategically important Atlantic coast, but were thwarted by the German operation. Norway put up a stiff fight against the German occupation and armed resistance in Norway went on for two months. King Haakon and the Norwegian government continued the fight from exile in Rotherhithe, London. On the day of the invasion, the collaborative leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling — Vidkun Quisling — tried to seize power, but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Quisling, as minister president, later formed a government under German control. During the five years of Nazi occupation, Norwegians built a strong resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both armed resistance and civil disobedience. In 1944, the Germans evacuated the provinces of Finnmark and northern Troms, using a scorched earth tactic to create a vast area of No-man's land in response to the Red Army attacking their positions in eastern Finnmark. The Soviets attacked into eastern Finnmark to create a buffer zone after pushing the German forces out of the arctic Kola peninsula. The Russians peacefully returned the area to Norwegian control after the war. The German forces in Norway surrendered on 8 May 1945. The occupation during World War II disturbed the Norwegians' confidence in neutrality, and they turned instead to collective security. Norway was one of the signatories of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949 and was a founding member of the United Nations, providing its first secretary general – Trygve Lie. Norway has twice voted against joining the European Union (in 1972 and 1994), but is associated with the EU via the European Economic Area. However, Norway is a member of the much smaller European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

Politics

Norway is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. The Royal House is a branch of the princely family of Glücksburg, originally from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. [http://www.kongehuset.no/dt_kongehuset_allAtOnce.asp?ogid=21&mgid=21&gid=54&aid=] The functions of the King, Harald V, are mainly ceremonial, but he has influence as the symbol of national unity. Although the constitution of 1814 grants important executive powers to the king, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King (King's Council, or cabinet). The reserve powers vested in the Monarch by the constitution are however significant and an important security part of the role of the Monarchy, and were last used during World War II. The Council of State consists of a Prime Minister and his council, formally appointed by the King. Since 1884, parliamentarism has ensured that the cabinet must have the support of the parliament, so the appointment by the King is a formality. parliamentarism The Norwegian parliament, Stortinget, currently has 169 members (increased from 165, effective from the elections of 12 September 2005). The members are elected from the 19 counties for 4-year terms according to a system of proportional representation. After elections the Storting divides into two chambers, the Odelsting and the Lagting, which meet separately or jointly depending on the agenda. Laws are proposed by the Odelsting and decided by the Lagting or, in case of disagreement, by the joint Storting. Impeachment cases are raised by the Odelsting and judged by the Lagting as part of the High Court of the Realm. Apart from this, the Storting functions as a unicameral parliament. The regular courts include the Supreme Court or Høyesterett (17 permanent judges and a chief justice), courts of appeal, city and district courts, and conciliation councils. Judges attached to regular courts are appointed by the King in council after nomination by the Ministry of Justice. The special High Court of the Realm, which consists of the Supreme Court plus the Lagting, hears impeachment cases. In order to form a government, more than half (currently at least 10 out of 19 members) of the Council of State are required to belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

Counties

Evangelical Lutheran Church Norway is divided into 19 administrative regions, called fylker (singular fylke) and 433 kommuner (singular kommune). Fylke and kommune are officially translated to English as county and municipality. The fylke is the intermediate administration between state and municipality.
- Akershus
- Aust-Agder
- Buskerud
- Finnmark
- Hedmark
- Hordaland
- Møre og Romsdal
- Nordland
- Nord-Trøndelag
- Oppland
- Oslo
- Østfold
- Rogaland
- Sogn og Fjordane
- Sør-Trøndelag
- Telemark
- Troms
- Vest-Agder
- Vestfold See also Regions of Norway.

Geography

Regions of Norway The landscape is generally rugged and mountainous, topped by glaciers, and its coastline of over 83,000 km [http://odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/environment/032091-991558/dok-bn.html] is punctuated by steep-sloped inlets known as fjords, as well as a multitude of islands and islets. The Northern part of the country is also known as the Land of the Midnight Sun because of its northern location, north of the Arctic Circle, where for part of each summer the sun does not set, and in winter much of its land remains dark for long periods. The southern part is not known for this, however in summertime, the sun is only away for a few hours. Norway is bounded for its entire length by seas of the North Atlantic Ocean: the North Sea to the southwest and its large inlet the Skagerrak to the south, the Norwegian Sea to the west, and the Barents Sea to the northeast. To the east, in order from south to north, it shares a long border with Sweden, a shorter one with Finland, and a still shorter one with Russia. Norway's highest point is the Galdhøpiggen at 2,469 m. With a maximum depth of 514 m, Hornindalsvatnet is Norway's and Europe's deepest lake. The Norwegian climate is fairly temperate, especially along the coast under the influence of the Gulf Stream. The inland climate can be more severe and to the north more subarctic conditions are found, especially in Finnmark. Climate data for some cities in different regions of the country; base period 1961-1990 (temperatures are 24hr average): Data from Norges Meteorologiske Institutt (Norwegian Meteorological Institute). Note: Temperatures have tended to be higher in recent years (see main article).
[http://met.no/english/climate/ Norwegian Meteorological Institute: The climate of Norway]

Economy

main article The Norwegian economy is a prosperous bastion of social capitalism, featuring a combination of free market activity and government intervention. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector (through large-scale state enterprises). The country is richly endowed with natural resources - petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals - and is highly dependent on its petroleum production and international oil prices; in 2004, oil and gas accounted for 50% of exports. Only Saudi Arabia and Russia export more oil than Norway, which is not a member of OPEC. The last 25 years, the Norwegian economy has shown various signs of the economic phenomenon called Dutch disease. Norway opted to stay out of the European Union during a referendum in 1972, and again in November 1994. However, Norway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participate in the EU's single market via the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. In 2000 the government sold one-third of the then 100% state-owned oil company Statoil. The economic growth was 0.8% in 1999, 2.7% in 2000, and 1.3% in 2001. After little growth in 2002 and 2003, the economy expanded more rapidly in 2004. With arguably the highest quality of life worldwide, Norwegians still worry about that time in the next two decades when the oil and gas begin to run out. Accordingly, Norway has been saving its oil-boosted budget surpluses in a Government Petroleum Fund, which is invested abroad and at the end of the second quarter of 2005 was valued at 181.5 billion US dollars . Economical overheating is avoided by the partial saving - rather than spending - of the oil revenues which are of very big importance for a relatively small country.

Demographics

The Norwegian population is 4.6 million and increases by 0.4% per year (estimate July 2004). Ethnically most Norwegians are Nordic / North Germanic, while small minorities in the north are Finnish (see also Cwen). The Sami are instead considered an indigenous people, and traditionally live in the Northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. The largest concentration of Sami people is, however, found in the Norwegian capital of Oslo. In recent years, immigration has accounted for more than half the population growth, and 7.9% of the population are immigrants as of 1 January 2005. Norway only takes in a very limited number of asylum seekers and aims to repatriate these people as quickly as possible. The largest immigrant groups are Pakistanis, Swedes, Danes, Iraqis, Vietnamese and Somalis. (Here, immigrants are defined as persons with two foreign-born parents [http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/minifakta_en/en/minifakta.pdf].) Approximately 86% of the inhabitants are members of the Evangelic Lutheran Church of Norway (state church). Other Christian societies total about 4.5% (the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church, the Catholic Church, Pentecostal congregations, the Methodist Church, etc.). Among non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest in Norway with about 1.5%, and other religions are at less than 1% each. About 1.5% belong to the secular Human Ethical Union. As of 1 January 2003 approximately 5% of the population are unaffiliated ([http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/07/02/10/trosamf_en/]). The Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. They have officially equal status, i.e. they are both used in public administration, in schools, churches, and on radio and television, but Bokmål is used by the majority. Around 95 percent of the population speak Norwegian as their native tongue, although many speak dialects that differ significantly from the written language. Nevertheless, all of the Norwegian dialects are interintelligible. Several Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by the Sami people. The Germanic Norwegian language and the Finno-Ugric Sami languages are entirely unrelated. However, the Finnish language bears some similarities to the Sami language.

Culture

Famous Norwegians include the playwrights/novelists Baron Ludvig Holberg and Henrik Ibsen, explorers Roald Amundsen, Fridtjof Nansen, and Thor Heyerdahl, expressionist painter Edvard Munch and the romanticist composer Edvard Grieg. The playwright/novelists Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Knut Hamsun and Sigrid Undset have all won the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1903, 1920 and 1928 respectively. Norwegians celebrate their national day on May 17, Constitution Day. Many people wear bunad (traditional costumes) and most participate in or watch the 17 May parade through the towns. Henrik Wergeland was the founder of the 17 May parade. These parades differ markedly from those of many other countries in that, rather than the military parades of, for example, France, they consist of children.
- Music of Norway
- Norse mythology
- [http://www.nfi.no/english/norwegianfilms/ Norwegian films]
- Norwegian Theatres

Miscellaneous topics

- Holidays in Norway
- Infrastructure in Norway
- Car numberplates in Norway
- Communications
- Power supply
- Transportation
- Foreign relations of Norway
- Military of Norway
- List of cities in Norway
- List of national parks of Norway
- List of Norwegian companies
- List of Norwegian language radio stations
- List of Norwegian newspapers
- List of Norwegian television channels
- List of Norwegians
- List of schools in Norway
- Norwegian literature
- Norwegian national football team
- Norwegian Premier League
- Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund
- Regions of Norway
- Tourism in Norway
- Cuisine of Norway
- Philharmonic Orchestras in Norway
- Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra
- Oslo Philharmonic Orchestra

International rankings

- [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html GDP per capita] - 4th of 231 countries
- Human Development Index - 1st of 177 countries 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001
- Index of Economic Freedom - 29th of 155 countries
- Reporters Without Borders Worldwide press freedom index - 1st of 166 countries 2003, 2002
- [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers 2004] Children's Index: Rank 1, Women's Index: Rank 6, Mother's Index: Rank 6 (119 countries)
- [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2004] - 8th of 145 countries
- [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report World Economic Forum: Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005] - 6th of 104 countries

External links

- [http://www.norway.info Norway.info] - Norway - the Official site
- [http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/minifakta_en/en/index.html Minifacts about Norway from Statistics Norway]
- [http://odin.dep.no/odin/english/bn.html ODIN] Information from the Government and Ministries
- [http://www.stortinget.no/english Official site of the Parliament (Stortinget)]
- [http://www.kongehuset.no/default.asp?lang=eng Official site of the Royal House]
- [http://www.norway.org Official website for the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, DC]
- [http://www.norway.no Norway.no] - Official portal
- [http://www.lovdata.no/info/lawdata.html Translated Norwegian legislation]
- [http://www.odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/system/032005-990424/ The Norwegian Constitution in English]
- [http://www.ub.uio.no/ujur/publikasjoner/skriftserie/18/ Sources to Legal Information in Norway]
- [http://www.norges-bank.no/english/notes_and_coins/ Norges Bank - current notes and coins]
- [http://www.norges-bank.no/english/ The Central Bank of Norway]
- [http://www.world-newspapers.com/norway.html Norwegian news in English]
- [http://odin.dep.no/ud/html/2000/minifakta/e/eng-02.html Public holidays in Norway]
- [http://ngis2.statkart.no/norgesglasset/default.html Searchable map of Norway]
- [http://www.domstol.no/Domstolene/index.asp?startID=&topExpand=1000010&menuitemid=1000033&strUrl=//internet/showObject.asp?i=1000107 The Norwegian court system]
- [http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp237_e.htm WTO: Trade Policy Review: Norway]
- [http://www.stavanger-web.com/jul/christma.htm Christmas in Norway]
- [http://www.studyinnorway.no/ Study In Norway] als:Norwegen zh-min-nan:Norge [[got:

Scots Pine

The Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris; family Pinaceae) is a common tree ranging from Great Britain and Spain east to eastern Siberia and the Caucasus Mountains, and as far north as Lapland. In the north of its range, it occurs from sea level to 1000 m, while in the south of its range, it is a high altitude mountain tree, growing at 1200-2500 m altitude. Lapland In the British Isles it is now native only in Scotland, but historical records indicate that it also occurred in Ireland, Wales and England as well until about 300-400 years ago, becoming extinct here due to over-exploitation; it has been re-introduced in these countries. Similar historical extinction and re-introduction applies to Denmark and the Netherlands. It grows up to 35 m in height when mature, exceptionally 40 m. The bark is thick, scaly dark grey-brown on the lower trunk, and thin, flaky and orange on the upper trunk and branches. The habit of the mature tree is distinctive due to its long, bare and straight trunk topped by a rounded or flat-topped mass of foliage. On mature trees the leaves ('needles') are a very attractive blue-green, 3-5 cm long and occur in pairs, but on young vigorous trees the leaves can be twice as long, and occasionally occur in threes and fours on the tips of strong shoots. The cones are pointed ovoid in shape and are 3-7 cm in length. cones Over 100 varieties have been described in the botanical literature, but only three are now accepted, the typical var. sylvestris from Scotland and Spain to central Siberia, var. hamata in the Balkans, northern Turkey and the Caucasus, and var. mongolica in Mongolia and adjoining parts of southern Siberia and northwestern China. One other variety, var. nevadensis in southern Spain, may also be distinct. Scots Pine is the only pine native to northern Europe, forming either pure forests or alongside Norway Spruce, Silver Birch, Common Rowan, Eurasian Aspen and other hardwood species. In central and southern Europe, it occurs with numerous additional species, including European Black Pine, Mountain Pine, Macedonian Pine and Swiss Pine. In the eastern part of its range, it also occurs with Siberian Pine among other trees. Scots Pine is the National tree of Scotland, and it formed much of the Caledonian Forest which once covered much of the Scottish Highlands. Overcutting for timber demand, fire, overgrazing by sheep and deer, and even deliberate clearance to deter wolves have all been factors in the decline of this once great pine and birch forest. Nowadays only comparatively small areas of this ancient forest remain, the main surviving remnants being Glen Affric, Rothiemurchus, and the Black Wood of Rannoch. Plans are currently in progress to restore at least some areas. Rannoch The wood is pale brown to red-brown, and used for general construction work. It has a dry density of around 470 kg/m3 (varying with growth conditions), an open porosity of 60%, a fibre saturation point of 0.25 kg/kg and a saturation moisture content of 1.60 kg/kg. Scots Pine has also been widely planted in New Zealand and much of the colder regions of North America; it is listed as an invasive species in some areas there, including Ontario and Wisconsin. The name derives from Latin pinus via French pin (pine); in the past (pre-18th century) this species was more often known as "Scots Fir" (from Danish fyr), but "fir" is restriced to Abies and Pseudotsuga in modern English. Other names sometimes used include include "Riga Pine" and "Norway Pine", and "Mongolian Pine" for var. mongolica. The name is sometimes mis-spelled 'scotch', a form which gives offence in Scotland and should be avoided. It is the birth flower representing the people whose birthday falls on the 10th November. This flower symbolizes "late maturity" meaning that people who are born on this date tends to mature later and reaches their professional/individual peak/success during the later years of their lives.

External links

- [http://www.conifers.org/pi/pin/sylvestris.htm Gymnosperm Database - Pinus sylvestris]
- [http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/tfl.scpine.html Trees for Life - restoring the Caledonian forests]
- [http://www.cashel.org.uk Cashel Forest Project - A project to regenerate Scotland's native woods]
- [http://www.transcotland.com/morar_ph.htm Scots Pine image]
- [http://www.transcotland.com/caledon.htm The Black Wood of Rannoch]
- [http://www.fafatflower.com.hk/sample/days/nov.htm The birth flower for 10th November] Pine, Scots Pine, Scots

Finnmark

Finnmark (Sami Finnmárku) is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway, bordering Troms to the west, Finland (Lapland) to the south and Russia (Murmansk Oblast) to the east. Finnmark borders the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and to the north and northeast is the Barents Sea (part of the Arctic Ocean). Finnmark is also part of the Lapland region, which spans four countries, as well as the Barents Region.

Geography and Nature

Finnmark is the northern- and easternmost county of Norway (Svalbard is not considered a county). In area, Finnmark is Norway's largest county, and is larger than Denmark. However, with a population of only 74,000, it is also the least populated.
Knivskjellodden in Nordkapp municipality (on Magerøya island) is the northernmost point of Europe; Kinnarodden at Nordkyn is the northermost point on the European mainland. Vardø is the easternmost point in Norway and western Europe, and is actually east of Istanbul.
Istanbul The northern and western parts of the county are indented by fjords. Some of Norway's largest sea birds colonies can be seen on the northern coast. The highest mountains, with glaciers like Øksfjordjøkelen and Seilandsjøkelen is located in the western part of Finnmark, while the sentral and eastern part of the county is generally less mountaineous.
The nature varies from barren coastal areas facing the Barents Sea, to more sheltered fjord areas and river valleys with gullies and tree vegetation, the most lush being the Alta area and the Tana (river) valley. In the east is the lowland area in the Pasvik valley in Sør-Varanger, where the pine forest shares many characteristics with the Russian taiga vegetation. Brown bears are not unusual in this eastern part of Finnmark. In the interior is the Finnmarksvidda plateu, with an elevation of approximately 400 m, with numerous lakes and river valleys, and famous for it's tens of thousands of reindeer owned by the Sami. Finnmarksvidda makes up 36% of the county's area. Stabbursdalen national park ensures protection for the world's most northern pine forest. Tanaelva, which partly defines the border with Finland, gives the largest catch of salmon of all rivers in Europe. In the east, Pasvikelva defines the border with Russia.

Climate

Finnmarksvidda in the interior of the county has a continental climate with the coldest winter temperatures in Norway: the coldest temperature ever recorded was -51.4°C in Karasjok, while the 24-hr averages for January & July at the same location is -17.1°C and 13.1°C, and precipitation is only 366 mm/year ([http://met.no/observasjoner/finnmark/normaler_for_kommune_2021.html?kommuner 1]). Karasjok has recorded up to 32.4°C in July, this gives a possible year amplitude of 84°C, which is rare in Europe. Finnmarksvidda have annual mean temperatures down to -3°C (Sihcajavri), this is the coldest in mainland Norway (except for higher mountains areas), and is even colder than Jan Mayen and Bjørnøya. Due to the proximity to the ice-free ocean, winters are much milder in coastal areas (and more windy); Loppa has average January & July temperatures of -2°C and 11.6°C, while the annual mean is 3.6°C([http://met.no/observasjoner/finnmark/normaler_for_kommune_2014.html?kommuner 2]), despite being further north. In the Köppen climate classification, the climate in Karasjok - and most of the lowland areas in Finnmark - corresponds to the Dfc category, while the Loppa climate corresponds to the Cfc category. The northeastern coast, from Nordkapp east to Vardø, have arctic tundra climate, as the average July temperature is below 10°C. Furthermore, elevation exceeding approximately 100 m in coastal areas in western Finnmark and 300-500 m in the interior results in an alpine tundra climate, and in the northeast this merges with the arctic tundra climate.
The climate in sheltered parts of fjord areas (particularly Altafjord) is usually considered the most hospitable: winters are not as cold as in the interior, and summer warmth are comparable. Even if winter temperatures are milder in coastal areas, the coast is more exposed to winter storms, which often complicate or shut down road and air communications.
Sources: Norwegian Meteorological Institute (24-hr averages, 1961-90 base period); A.Moen: Vegetasjon. Nasjonalatlas for Norge.

Administration and Economy

Vadsø is the capital city of the county of Finnmark, although Alta has the largest population. Fisheries have traditionally been the most important way of living along the coast, where the majority of the Norwegian population live. The Sami makes up the majority of the population in the interior of the county. Kirkenes has seen many Russian immigrants, being just a few kilometers from the Russian border.
There are two hospitals in Finnmark, located in Kirkenes and Hammerfest. There are several smaller airports (with flights to Tromsø), but only Alta and Kirkenes have airports with long runways and flights to Oslo. In addition, Banak Air field in Porsanger is used for training purposes by the Royal Norwegian Air Force and other NATO allies, in conjunction with the nearby Halkavarre shooting range, which allows for practice with precison guided munitions. Garnisonen i Porsanger is also located near Halkavarre training area. Hammerfest is the centre of Finnmark's tourist trade, and is now experiencing an economic boom ([http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1651724,00.html 3]) as a consequence of Statoil's construction of the large land-based LNG site at Melkøya ([http://www.statoil.com/STATOILCOM/snohvit/svg02699.nsf?OpenDatabase&lang=en 4]). There are also optimism in the eastern part of the county, as the growing petroleum activity in the Barents Sea is expected to generate increased economic activity on land as well ([http://www.bellona.no/en/energy/fossil/barents/27569.html 5]).

History

petroleum People have lived in Finnmark for at least 8000 years (see Komsa, Pit-Comb Ware culture and Rock carvings at Alta). Gjesvær in Nordkapp is mentioned in the Sagas (Heimskringla) as a summer base used for hunting and gathering (eggs) in the Viking age. Coastal areas of Finnmark were colonized by Norwegians beginning in the Middle Ages, but first became a subject of major colonization in the 18th and 19th century. Norway, Sweden and Russia all claimed control over the this area. Finnmark was initially a Norwegian colony, but became an integrated part of the Kingdom in the early part of the 19th century, when it was elevated to Amt (county). For a time, there was a vibrant trade with Russia (Pomor Trade), and many Norwegians settled on the Kola Peninsula (see Kola Norwegians).
Towards the end of World War II, the Germans used the scorched earth tactic in Finnmark and northern Troms to halt the victorious Red Army. As a consequence of this, few houses survived the war, and a large part of the population was forcefully evacuated further south (Tromsø was crowded), but many hid and waited until the Germans were gone, then inspected their burned homes. However, after liberating Kirkenes on October 25 1944 (as the first town in Norway), the Red Army did not attempt further offensives in Norway. The town was peacefully handed over to Norway as the war ended.
Traditionally, the Norwegians lived on the coast, where they made up the majority, and the Sami people was in majority in the interior part of Finnmark, while the fjord areas were mixed. In essence, this still holds true today. The Sami were for many years victims of what is called fornorskningspolitikken, which in essence was a deliberate attempt by the Norwegian society to make them "true" Norwegians and forget about their Sami way of life and religion, which was seen as inferior. As a result of this, the Sami living at the coast and in the fjords gradually lost much of their culture and often felt ashamed by their Sami inheritance. The Sami in the interior managed to preserve more of their culture. However, in the 1970s, instruction of Sami language started in the schools, and a new sense of consciousness started to grow among the Sami, and today most are proud of their Sami culture. In the midst of this awakening (1979), Norway's government decided to build a dam in Alta to produce hydropower, this provoked many Sami and environmentalists, resulting in demonstrations and civil disobedience (Altasaken), although at the end, the dam was built, and the salmon still spawns in the river, but the Sami culture was now on the government's agenda. The Sami parliament, Samediggi, opened in Karasjok in 1989.

Demographics

Much of the Sami population of Norway live in Finnmark. The county and the municipalities Kautokeino, Karasjok, Tana, Nesseby, Porsanger and Kåfjord (in Troms) also have official names in the Sami language. The old stoneage Komsa culture is very difficult to relate to the people living in Finnmark today. There are findings suggesting that the Sami people have been here for a long time, but exactly how long is unclear, some scholars claim 2000 years, but the Sami might have arrived much earlier. From the Middle Ages, the coastal areas have been populated and visited by ethnic Norwegians, and Finnmark became part of the kingdom.
In the 1800s, many immigrants came from Finland, which suffered from famine, and settled in Finnmark, especially the eastern part. These immigrants originally spoke the Finnish Quen (Kven) dialect with some Norwegian influences. They are genetically related to the people of the province of Kainuu in Finland. Vadsø is often seen as the Quen capital in Finnmark.
Lakselv in central Finnmark is sometimes referred to as meeting place for three tribes. In recent years, with the Russian immigrants arriving in Kirkenes, this town is actually a meeting place for four cultures. Finnmark is also the older name for Lapland in Sweden and is used by some inhabitants in this region. The title comes from Linné's expeditions in the northern Nordic during the 1700s.

Municipalities

1700s
- Alta
- Berlevåg
- Båtsfjord
- Gamvik
- Hammerfest
- Hasvik
- Karasjok
- Kautokeino
- Kvalsund
- Lebesby
- Loppa
- Måsøy
- Nesseby
- Nordkapp
- Porsanger
- Sør-Varanger
- Tana
- Vadsø
- Vardø Category:Counties of Norway Category:Former Norwegian colonies

Waterfall

, Australia]] A waterfall is usually a geological formation resulting from water, often in the form of a stream flowing over an erosion-resistant rock formation that forms a sudden break in elevation. Waterfalls may also be artificial, and they are sometimes used for garden and landscape ornament. Some waterfalls form in mountain environments where erosion is rapid and stream courses may be subject to sudden and catastrophic change. In such cases, the waterfall may not be the end product of many years of water action over a region, but rather the result of relatively sudden geological processes such as thrust faults or volcanic action.

Formation

volcanic action Some waterfalls are the result of action of water on the underlying strata. Typically, a stream will flow across an area of formations, and more resistant rock strata will form shelves across the streamway, elevated above the further stream bed when the less erosion-resistant rock around it disappears. Over a period of years, the edges of this shelf will gradually break away and the waterfall will steadily move upstream. Often, the rock strata just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, and will erode out to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a rock shelter (also known as a rock house) under and behind the waterfall. Streams often become wider and more shallow just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep pool just below the waterfall due to the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. Some water falls have brown water from picking up rust, dirt and clay from the things it passes.

Types of waterfalls

kinetic energy ; Block : Water descends from a relatively wide stream or river. ; Cascade : Water descends a series of rock steps. ; Cataract : A large waterfall. ; Fan : Water spreads horizontally as it descends while remaining in contact with bedrock. ; Horsetail : Descending water maintains some contact with bedrock ; Plunge : Water descends vertically, losing contact with the bedrock surface ; Punchbowl : Water descends in a constricted form, then spreads out in a wider pool. ; Segmented : Distinctly separate flows of water form as it descends. ; Tiered : Water drops in a series of distinct steps or falls.

Examples of large waterfalls

- Angel Falls, the world's highest at 979 m (3230 ft), in Venezuela
- Victoria Falls, the world's largest, on the Zambezi River, on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe
- Boyoma Falls, with the world's highest volume, 17,000 m³/s (600,000 ft³/s), on the Congo River, Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Yosemite Falls, the tallest in North America, located in Yosemite National Park, United States
- Niagara Falls, most voluminous in North America, on the border between the United States and Canada
- Rhine Falls, Europe's largest, located in Switzerland
- Iguazu Falls, a tall and extremely wide fall located in South America on the Argentina/Brazil border
- Jog Falls, India's highest and second highest in Asia, located in Karnataka state, India
- Jurong Falls in Singapore is said to be the tallest man-made waterfall in the world

Gallery

Image:Base of Tower Fall with rainbow-750px.JPG|Tower Fall in Yellowstone National Park, United States Image:Iceland_Godafoss 1972.jpg|Godafoss in Iceland Image:Angel falls.jpg|Angel Falls, Venezeuela Image:Wailua_Falls_Hawii.JPG|Wailua Falls in Hawaii, United States Image:Iceland Dettifoss 1972-4.jpg|Dettifoss in Iceland Image:National botanical gardens09.jpg|Man made waterfall at the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra, Australia Image:Waterfall_near_Brienzersee.JPG|Waterfall near Brienzersee, Switzerland

External links

- [http://www.world-waterfalls.com/ World Waterfall Database]
- [http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen3/f44_niagara.html Niagara Falls - Fullscreen QTVR Panorama]
- ja:滝

Climate

The climate (ancient Greek: κλίμα) is the weather averaged over a long period of time. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary definition is: : Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “average weather”, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm]

Climate vs weather

In the most succinct words, weather is the combination of events in the atmosphere and climate is the overall accumulated weather in a certian location. The exact boundaries of what is climate and what is weather are not well defined and depend on the application. For example, in some senses an individual El Niño event could be considered climate; in others, as weather. When the original conception of climate as a long-term average came to be considered, perhaps towards the end of the 19th century, the idea of climate change was not current, and a 30 year average seemed reasonable (but see note 1). Given the current availability of long-term trends in the temperature record, it is harder to give a precise contradiction-free definition of climate: over a 30 year period, averages may shift; over a shorter period, the statistics are less stable.

Climate determinants

In a given geographical region, the climate generally does not vary over time on the scale of a human life span. However, over geological time, climate can vary considerably for a given place on the Earth. For example, Scandinavia has been through a number of ice ages over hundreds of thousands of years (the last one ending about 10,000 years ago). Paleoclimatology is the study of these past climates, their origin, and by extension, the origin of today's climate. Over historic time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate including: altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: The Thermohaline circulation of the ocean distributes heat energy between the equatorial and polar regions; other ocean currents do the same between land and water on a more regional scale. Degree of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming (or cooling). The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least in so far as the determinates of historical climate change are concerned.

Climate indices

Scientists use climate indices in their attempt to characterize and understand the various climate mechanisms that culminate in our daily weather. Much in the way the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations in the stock market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally identified or devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor they represent. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into an generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which impact the global climate system. Because the climate indices are generally determined from measurements made in a localized area, they can have impacts in other areas around the globe, through processes sometimes called teleconnections. References:
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]

Classifications

In the original sense, climate is a concept used to divide the world into regions sharing similar climatic parameters. Climate regions can be classified on the basis of temperature and precipitation alone. Examples of such climate schemes are the Köppen climate classification or the Thornthwaite climate classification schemes. For more details about specific climates, please see:
- Tropical climate
- Subtropical climate
- Arid climate
- Semiarid climate
- Mediterranean climate
- Temperate climate
- Oceanic climate
- Continental climate
- Alpine climate
- Subarctic climate
- Polar climate
- Climate of Antarctica To understand a climate of a specific place or area, please see the article on that place or area.

Historical climates

- Climate changes of 535-536
- Medieval climate optimum

National climates

- Climate of the Alps
- Climate of India
- Climate of the United Kingdom

External links

- [http://climateapps2.oucs.ox.ac.uk/cpdnboinc/ Climate Prediction Project]
- [http://www.worldclimate.com WorldClimate]
- [http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/1442 ESPERE Climate Encyclopaedia]
- [http://www.weatherbase.com Weatherbase]
- [http://www.climate-zone.com Global Climate Data]
- [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
- [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ A near-realtime Arctic Change Indicator Website]
- [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov/ A current view of the Bering Sea Ecosystem and Climate]

Notes

# In "Climatology" by W G Kendrew (OUP; 3rd edition 1949; chapter 38; page 359) we find: "A well-known cycle is one with a mean period of about 35 years... which was worked out by Bruckner... the reality of this cycle seems to be well established, though it is of little use for actual forecasting; it is a basis of the choice of 35 years as the period estimated to give true mean values of climate elements." Category:Ecology ko:기후 ja:気候 simple:Climate

Fjord

A fjord (sometimes written fiord, notably in New Zealand English) is a glacially overdeepened valley, usually narrow and steep-sided, extending below sea level and filled with salt water. However, many fjords are called "canals" and "sounds" even when they are fjord-like in character, e.g. Hood Canal and Kyuquot Sound in the Pacific Northwest. Fjord is an Old Norse loan word, and is a cognate to firth. In Scandinavia, fjord is used for narrow inlets in Norway, Denmark and western Sweden, whereas the name fjärd is used in a synonymous manner for narrow inlets on the Swedish Baltic Sea coast, and in most Swedish lakes. This latter term is also used for bodies of water off the coast of Finland where Finland Swedish is spoken. Note that the uses for the words fjord and especially for the eastern form fjärd are more general in the Scandinavian languages than in English. There is also an ancient breed of horse from Norway called the fjord horse.

Characteristics

fjord horse Fjords are found in locations where current or past glaciation extended below current sea level. A fjord is formed when a glacier retreats, after carving its typical U-shaped valley, and the sea fills the resulting valley floor. This forms a narrow, steep sided inlet (sometimes as deep as 1300 m) connected to the sea. The terminal moraine pushed down the valley by the glacier is left underwater at the fjord's entrance, causing the water at the neck of the fjord to be shallower than the main body of the fjord behind it. This shallow threshold and the protection afforded by the valley's sides generally means that fjords are excellent natural harbours. Consequently fjords often provide a home port to fishing fleets, and in industrialised locations have come to be used for fish farming and shipbuilding. As late as 2000, some of the world's largest coral reefs were discovered along the bottoms of the Norwegian fjords. These reefs were found in fjords all the way from the north of Norway to the south. The marine life on the reefs is believed to be one of the most important reasons why the Norwegian coastline is such a generous fishing ground. Since this discovery is fairly new, little research has yet been done. So far, only the deep sea diver who discovered the first reef at 60 meters has visited it, and even he has only been down three times. The reefs are host to thousands of lifeforms such as plankton, coral, anemonies, fish, several species of sharks, and many more one would expect to find on a reef. However most are specially adapted to life under the greater pressure of the water column above it, and the total darkness of the deep sea. New Zealand's fiords are also host to deep sea corals, but a surface layer of dark fresh water allows these corals to grow in much shallower water than usual. An underwater observatory in Milford Sound allows tourists to view them without diving.

Locations

Milford Sound.]] Fjords are found along the coast of:
- Antarctica, particularly the Antarctic Peninsula
- various Arctic and Sub-antarctic islands
- Canada:
- British Columbia, down to Puget Sound
- the south and west coasts of Newfoundland
- the Labrador coast
- the Saguenay Fjord in Quebec
- the Arctic Archipelago
- southern Chile
- Germany, on the coast of the Baltic Sea
- Greenland
- Iceland
- Ireland (Ireland's only fjord is in Killary Harbour near Leenane, County Galway, on the west coast)
- New Zealand, Fiordland, in the southwest of the South Island
- Norway
- Scotland (where called firths, the Scots language cognate of fjord; lochs or sea lochs)
- Sweden
- United States
- the south and west coasts of Alaska
- Somes Sound, Maine
- Puget Sound, Washington The longest fjords in the world are: # Scoresby Sund on Greenland, (350 km) # Sognefjord in Norway (203 km) # Hardangerfjord in Norway (179 km)

False fjords

Hardangerfjord The Bay of Kotor in Montenegro has been considered by some to be a fjord, but is in fact a drowned river canyon or ria. Similarly the Lim bay in Istria, Croatia, is sometimes called "Lim fjord" although it is not actually a fjord carved by glacial erosion but instead a ria dug by the river Pazinčica. The Croats call it Limski kanal which is also inaccurate, in another way. A Limfjord also exists in the north of Denmark, which is not a real fjord either, and is the one which would deserve to be called a channel, since it now separates the island of Vendsyssel-Thy from the rest of Jutland. While the long fjord-like bays of the New England coast are sometimes referred to as "fiards", the only true fjord in New England is Somes Sound in Maine. Some Norwegian freshwater lakes which have formed in long glacially carved valleys with terminal moraines blocking the outlet are named fjords, as are the three western arms of New Zealand's Lake Te Anau. Western Brook Pond, in Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park, is also often described as a fjord, but is actually a freshwater lake cut off from the sea.

Fjords in literature and popular culture

- Slartibartfast, a character in Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, is noted for having crafted the fjords in Norway.
- In Monty Python's famous Dead Parrot sketch, Michael Palin asserts that John Cleese's deceased Norwegian Blue parrot is, not dead, but rather "pining for the fjords".

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2683797.stm Use of whales to probe Arctic fjord's secrets]
- [http://www.fjords.com Pictures and info about Norwegian fjords]
- [http://www.doc.govt.nz/Conservation/Marine-and-Coastal/Marine-Reserves/025~Fiordlands-Marine-Reserves/index.asp#Marine-Environment Fiordland's Marine Environment (and corals)]
- [http://www.milforddeep.co.nz/gallery.htm Gallery of corals and associated marine life] Category:Landforms Category:Bodies of water Category:Glaciology ja:フィヨルド

Valley

:This article is about the physical-geographic term. For places named "Valley" see Valley (disambiguation). Valley (disambiguation)-Iceland]] A valley is a landform, which can range from a few square miles (square kilometers) to hundreds or even thousands of square miles (square kilometers) in area. It is typically a low-lying area of land, surrounded by higher areas such as mountains or hills. Valleys are formed by numerous geographical processes. Glacial valleys, which are usually U- rather than V-shaped, were formed tens of thousands of years ago (most likely during the last Ice Age) by the massive erosive power of glaciers. Several glacial valleys can be found in the English Lake District and many can be found in Alpine countries. Rift valleys, such as the Great Rift Valley, are formed by the expansion of the Earth's crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earth's surface. Valleys are, however, most commonly formed by fluvial activity (the action of running water, such as rivers), which erodes the landscape.

Hollows

A hollow is loose name for a valley in the earth. It is commonly used in New England to describe such geographic features. Hollows may be formed by river valleys such as Mansfield Hollow or they may be relatively dry clefts with a notch like characteristic in that they have a height of land and consequent water divide in their bases. A hollow such as this is Boston Hollow.

Famous valleys

- California Central Valley
- Copper Canyon
- Death Valley
- Grand Canyon
- Great Rift Valley
- Loire Valley
- Napa Valley
- Rhone Valley
- Shenandoah Valley
- Valley of the Kings
- San Fernando Valley
- Santa Clara Valley (Silicon Valley)

Extraterrestrial valleys

Planets and moons other than the Earth can also have valley-like features. Lunar valleys can be formed due to a linked chain of impact craters. Smaller valleys, known as rilles, can be formed due lava flows or because of contractions in cooling lava sheets. The Valles Marineris formation on Mars is a valley nearly 4000 km in length. It was originally formed by tectonic forces, but has been expanded by erosion.

Lichen

:For other things named "lichen", see: Lichen (disambiguation). Lichen (disambiguation) Lichens are symbiotic organisms made up by the association of microscopic green algae or cyanobacteria and filamentous fungi. Lichens take the external shape of the fungal partner and hence are named based on the fungus. The fungus most commonly forms the majority of the lichen's bulk, though in filamentous and gelatinous lichens this may not always be the case. The lichen fungus is typically a member of the Ascomycota—rarely a member of the Basidiomycota. Some lichen taxonomists place lichens in their own division, the Mycophycophyta, but this practice ignores the fact that the components belong to separate lineages. The algal cells contain chlorophyll, permitting them to live in a purely mineral environment by producing their own organic compounds (see photosynthesis). The fungus protects the alga against drying out and, in some cases, provides it with minerals obtained from the substratum. If a cyanobacterium, such as in Terricolous Lichens, is present this can fix atmospheric nitrogen, complementing the activities of the green alga.

Morphology and structure

Lichens live on various surfaces: soil, trees, rocks, and walls. They are often the first to settle in places lacking soil, constituting the sole vegetation in some extreme environments such as found at high mountain elevations and at high latitudes. Some survive in the tough conditions of deserts, and others on frozen soil of the arctic regions. Recent NASA research shows that lichen can even endure extended exposure to space. Some lichens have the aspect of leaves (foliose lichens); others cover the substratum like a crust (crustose lichens); others adopt shrubby forms (fruticose lichens); and there are gelatinous lichens (see lichen forms below). Although the form of a lichen is determined by the genetic material of the fungal partner, association with a photobiont is required for the development of that form. When grown in the laboratory in the absence of its photobiont a lichen fungus develops as an undifferentiated mass of hyphae. If combined with its photobiont under appropriate conditions the morphogenesis of the lichen occurs and its characteristic form emerges. (Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff, 2001) There is evidence to suggest that the lichen symbiosis is parasitic rather than mutualistic. The photosynthetic partner can exist in nature independently of the fungal partner but not vice versa. Furthermore, photobiont cells are routinely destroyed in the course of nutrient exchange. The association is able to continue because photobiont cells reproduce faster than they are destroyed. (Ibid.) When seen under magnification, a section through a typical foliose lichen thallus reveals four layers of interlaced filaments (fungus). The upper layer is formed by densely agglutinated fungal hyphae building a protective outer layer called the cortex. Cyanobacteria may be held in small eruptions of or under the surface called cephalopodia. Beneath the upper cortex is an algal layer composed of algal cells embedded in rather densely interwoven fungal hyphae. Each cell or group of cells of the photobiont is usually individually wrapped by hyphae and in some cases penetrated by an haustorium. Beneath the algal layer is a layer of loosely interwoven fungal hyphae without algal cells. This layer is called the medulla. Beneath the medulla the bottom surface resembles the upper surface and is called the lower cortex, consisting of densely packed fungal hyphae. The lower cortex often bears structures, such as rhizines or a tomentum, serving to attach the thallus to the substratum on which it grows. Lichens also sometimes contain structures made from fungal metabolites, for example crustose lichens sometimes have a polysaccharide layer in the cortex. Although each lichen thallus generally appears homogenous, it may consist of several different species of fungus and photobiont living together.

Reproduction

Lichens most frequently reproduce asexually, either by vegetative reproduction or through the dispersal of diaspores containing algal and fungal cells. Soredia (sing. soredium) are small groups of algal cells surrounded by fungal filaments that form in cavities called soralia, which open when the lichen dries or surrounding tissues die and release the soredia to be dispersed by wind. Another form of diaspore are isidia, elongated outgrowths from the thallus that break off for dispersal. Fruticose lichens in particular can easily fragment. Due to the relative lack of differentiation in the thallus, the line between diaspore formation and vegetative reproduction is often blurred. Many lichens break up into fragments when they dry, dispersing themselves to resume growth when moisture returns. soredium Lichens also reproduce sexually in a manner typical of fungi, forming fungal and algal "propagules" that following germination must meet with a compatible partner before a functional lichen can form. This is generally not a common means of reproduction for most lichens, though it is more common in basidiomycetous lichens since they appear to lack structures specifically designed for asexual reproduction. Spores are produced in spore producing bodies, the three most common spore body types are the apothecia, perithecia and the pycnidia.

Ecology

Because lichens are morphologically small relative to most terrestrial plants, yet require access to sunlight in order to grow, most forms are attached to either large boulders, other inert surfaces, or woody plants in somewhat to completely open or exposed situations. However, where adequate moisture exists, lichens develop on surfaces (particularly those of slow-growing trees) in forests as part of an epiphyte community. Stability (that is, longevity) of a surface is a commonality of most lichen habitats. Lichens are relatively slow-growing, and do not always compete well against even similarly low-growing mosses or liverworts where conditions of adequate moisture will favor the latter. Lichens are a part of the food available for many animals, such as reindeer, living in arctic regions. The larvae of a surprising number of Lepidoptera species feed exclusively on lichens. These include Common Footman and Marbled Beauty. Although lichens typically grow in harsh environments in nature, many lichens are sensitive to man-made pollutants. Hence, they have potential as pollution indicator organisms. When growing on mineral surfaces, some lichens slowly degrade their substrate by secreting acids that dissolve the minerals, contributing to the process of weathering by which rocks are gradually turned into soil. While this contribution to weathering is usually benign, it can cause problems for man-made stone structures. For example, there is an ongoing lichen growth problem on Mount Rushmore National Memorial that requires the employ of mountain climbing conservators to clean the monument. The European Space Agency has discovered that Lichens can survive unprotected in space. In an experiment led by Leopoldo Sancho from the Complutense University of Madrid, two species of lichen – Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans – were sealed in a capsule and launched on a Russian Soyuz rocket on 31 May 2005. The Lichens were exposed to temperatures ranging from -20°C to 20°C, the vacuum of space and radiation for 15 days. Afterward, they were found to be in the same state as the start of the experiment.

Classification

Lichens are informally classified by growth form into:
- crustose (paint-like, flat), e.g., Caloplaca flavescens
- filamentose (hair-like), e.g., Ephebe lanata
- foliose (leafy), e.g., Hypogymnia physodes
- fruticose (branched), e.g., Cladina evensii, C. subtenuis, and Usnea australis
- leprose (powdery), e.g., Lepraria incana
- squamulose (consisting of small scale-like structures, lacking a lower cortex), e.g., Normandina pulchella
- gelatinous lichens, in which the cyanobacteria produce a polysaccharide that absorbs and retains water. image:Lichen_squamulose.jpg|A foliose lichen on basalt image:Lichen_fruiticose.jpg|Usnea australis, a fruticose form, growing on a tree branch Image:Lichen02.jpg|Map lichen (Rhizocarpon geographicum) on rock image:Hyella caespitosa hypae.jpg|The cyanobacterium Hyella caespitosa with fungal hyphae in the lichen Pyrenocollema halodytes

References

Brodo, I.M., S.D. Sharnoff, and S. Sharnoff, 2001. Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New Haven. http://www.newscientistspace.com/article/dn8297 Hardy lichen shown to survive in space

External links

- [http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/Mycology/Plant_Interactions/Lichen/lichenBiology.shtml University of Sydney lichen biology]
- [http://thavibu.com/caliciales/ Crustose species of lichen order Caliciales in Norway]
- [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/SEMUJM638FE_index_0.html ESA article on lichen survivability in low earth orbit] Category:Symbiosis Category:Mycology Category: cryptogams ja:地衣類

Willow

About 350, including:
Salix acutifolia - Violet Willow
Salix alaxensis - Alaska Willow
Salix alba - White Willow
Salix alpina - Alpine Willow
Salix amygdaloides - Peachleaf Willow
Salix arbuscula - Mountain Willow
Salix arbusculoides - Littletree Willow
Salix arctica - Arctic Willow
Salix atrocinerea
Salix aurita - Eared Willow
Salix babylonica - Peking Willow
Salix barrattiana - Barratt's Willow
Salix bebbiana - Beaked Willow
Salix boothii - Booth Willow
Salix bouffordii
Salix brachycarpa - Barren-ground Willow
Salix cacuminis
Salix candida - Sage Willow
Salix caprea - Goat Willow
Salix caroliniana - Coastal Plain Willow
Salix chilensis
Salix cinerea - Grey Sallow
Salix cordata
Salix daphnoides
Salix discolor - Pussy Willow
Salix fragilis - Crack Willow
Salix eastwoodiae - Eastwood's Willow
Salix eleagnos
Salix eriocephala - Diamond Willow
Salix exigua - Sandbar Willow
Salix foetida
Salix geyeriana
Salix glauca
Salix hainanica - Hainan Willow
Salix helvetica - Swiss Willow
Salix herbacea - Dwarf Willow
Salix humboldtiana - Chile Willow
Salix humilis - Upland Willow
Salix interior
Salix kusanoi
Salix lanata - Woolly Willow
Salix lapponum - Downy Willow
Salix lasiandra - Pacific Willow
Salix lasiolepsis - Arroyo Willow
Salix lucida - Shining Willow
Salix matsudana - Chinese Willow
Salix mucronata
Salix myrtilloides - Swamp Willow
Salix myrsinifolia - Dark-leaved Willow
Salix myrsinites - Whortle-leaved Willow
Salix nigra - Black Willow
Salix pedicellaris - Bog Willow
Salix pentandra - Bay Willow
Salix petiolaris - Slender Willow
Salix phylicifolia - Tea-leaved Willow
Salix planifolia
Salix polaris - Polar Willow
Salix pseudo-argentea
Salix purpurea - Purple Willow
Salix pyrifolia - Balsam Willow
Salix repens - Creeping Willow
Salix reticulata - Net-leaved Willow
Salix retusa
Salix rosmarinifolia - Rosemary-leaved Willow
Salix salicicola
Salix scouleriana - Scouler's Willow
Salix sericea - Silky Willow
Salix serissima - Autumn Willow
Salix sitchensis
Salix tetrasperma
Salix thorelii
Salix triandra - Almond Willow
Salix viminalis - Common Osier
Salix waldsteiniana The willows are deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus Salix, part of the willow family Salicaceae. There are about 350 species in this genus worldwide, found primarily on moist soils in cooler zones in the Northern Hemisphere. The leaves are deciduous, often elongate but round to oval in a few species, and with a serrated margin. Willows are dioecious with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on different plants; the catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves or as the new leaves open. The fruit is a small capsule containing numerous tiny (0.1 mm) seeds embedded in white down, which assists wind dispersal of the seeds. Willows are very cross-fertile and numerous hybrids are known, both naturally occurring and in cultivation. Some smaller species may also be known by the common names osier and sallow; the latter name is derived from the same root as the Latin salix. Some willows, particularly arctic and alpine species, are very small; the Dwarf Willow (Salix herbacea) rarely exceeds 6 cm in height, though spreading widely across the ground. The Weeping Willow, very widely planted as an ornamental tree, is a cultivar, Salix × sepulcralis 'Chrysocoma', derived from a hybrid between the Chinese Peking Willow and the European White Willow. Almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground. The most famous example of this is the poet, Alexander Pope, who begged a twig from a parcel tied with twigs sent from Spain to Lady Suffolk. This was planted and thrived and legend has it that all England's Weeping Willows are descended from this first one. There are a few exceptions to this ready growth from cuttings, including the Goat Willow and Peachleaf Willow. Willows are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera which feed on Willows.

Medicinal properties

The bark of the willow tree has been mentioned in ancient texts from Assyria, Sumeria and Egypt as a remedy for aches and fever, and the Greek physician Hippocrates wrote about its medicinal properties in the 5th century BC. Native Americans across the American continent relied on it as a staple of their medical treatments. The active extract of the bark, called salicin, was isolated to its crystalline form in 1828 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist, and Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicin is acidic when in a saturated solution in water (pH = 2.4), and is called salicylic acid for that reason. In 1897 Felix Hoffmann created a synthetically altered version of salicin (in his case derived from the Spiraea plant), which caused less digestive upset than pure salicylic acid. The new drug, formally Acetylsalicylic acid, was named aspirin by Hoffmann's employer Bayer AG. This gave rise to the hugely important class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Uses

- Agroforestry
- Basket weaving
- Biofiltration
- Biomass energy (bioenergy)
- Box, Veneer
- Charcoal
- Constructed wetland
- Cricket bat
- Cradle board
- Chair & furniture
- Doll, Toy, Whistle
- Ecological wastewater treatment system
- Energy forestry
- As part of the four species used on the Jewish holiday of Sukkot.
- Fish trap
- Flute
- Land reclamation
- Landscaping
- Living Willow Sculpture
- Paper
- Phytoremediation
- Pole, Turnery, Tool handles
- punitive, as a switch or multiple rod (implements for corporal punishment; a traditional favorite, hence also used as a verb for its painful administration, from which the substantivation willowing derives, like birching)
- Rope
- Streambank stabilisation (bioengineering)
- Slope stabilisation
- Soil erosion control
- Soil building
- Shelterbelt & Windbreak
- Sweat lodge
- Wand, Broom
- Wattle fence
- Wattle and daub
- Wildlife habitat

External links

;Salix alba
- [http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/thome/band2/tafel_010.html Salix alba image from 'Flora von Deutschland Österreich und der Schweiz']
- [http://www.scs.leeds.ac.uk/cgi-bin/pfaf/arr_html?Salix+alba Salix