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Fujiwara

Fujiwara

The Fujiwara family (藤原氏 Fujiwara-shi) was a family of regents who had sort of monopoly to the Sekkan positions, Sesshō and Kampaku. The founder Nakatomi no Kamatari (614-669) was given the surname Fujiwara by Emperor Tenji. They dominated the Japanese politics of Heian period. In subsequent eras, they were influential. During the Nara period Fujiwara clan's political influence was initiated. Nakatomi no Kamatari, a member of the lower-nobility Nakatomi family, sided with Prince Naka no Ōe (the future Emperor Tenji), when the imperial authority was challenged by the Soga clan. Naka no Ōe and Nakatomi no Kamatari led a coup against the Soga in 645 and initiated a series of sweeping government reforms (the Taika Reform). In 669 Emperor Tenji (reigned 661-671), bestowed the kabane Fujiwara no Ason on Kamatari. The surname passed to the descendants of Fujiwara no Fuhito (659-720), the second son and heir of Kamatari, who was prominent at the court of several emperors and empresses. He made his daughter Miyako a concubine of Emperor Mommu. Her son, Prince Obito became Emperor Shōmu. Fuhito succeeded in making another of his daughters, Kōmyōshi, the empress consort of Emperor Shōmu. She was the first empress consort of Japan who wasn't a daughter of the imperial family itself. Fuhito had four sons and each of those four founded a family. Among them, the Hokke (the northern family) seized power and was considered the leader of the entire clan. During the Heian period of Japanese history, the Hokke managed to establish a hereditary claim to the position of regent, either for an underage emperor (sesshō) or for an adult one (kampaku). Some prominent Fujiwaras occupied these positions more than once, and for more than one emperor. Lesser members of the Fujiwara were court nobles, provincial governors and vice governors, members of the provincial aristocracy, and samurai. The Fujiwara was one of the four great families that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period (794-1185), and the most important of them at that time. The others were the Tachibana, the Taira and the Minamoto. The Fujiwara exercised tremendous power, especially during the period of regency governments in 10th and 11th centuries, having many emperors as practially puppet monarchs. The Fujiwara dominated the government of Japan 794-1160. There is no clear starting point of their dominance. However, their domination of civil administration was lost by the establishment of the first shogunate under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192. Fujiwara princes initially served as highest ministers of the imperial Court (kampaku) and regents (sesshō) for underage monarchs. The Fujiwara were the proverbial "power behind the throne" for centuries. Apparently they never aspired to supplant the imperial dynasty. Instead, the clan's influence stemmed from its matrimonial alliances with the imperial family. Because consorts of crown princes, younger sons, and emperors were generally Fujiwara women, the male heads of the Fujiwara house were often the father-in-law, brother-in-law, uncle, or maternal grandfather of the emperor. The family reached the peak of its power under Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1027), a longtime kampaku who was the grandfather of three emperors, the father of six empresses or imperial consorts, and the grandfather of seven additional imperial consorts. Only forty years after Michinaga's death, his Fujiwara heirs were not able to prevent the ascension of Emperor Go-Sanjō (reigned 1068-1073), the first emperor since Emperor Go-Uda whose mother was not a Fujiwara. The system of government by retired emperor (daijō tennō) (cloistered rule) beginning from 1087 further weakened the Fujiwara's control over the Imperial Court. The Fujiwara-dominated Heian period approached its end along disturbances of 12th century. The dynastic struggle known as the Hōgen Disturbance (Hōgen no Ran) led to the Taira emerging as the most powerful clan in 1156. During the Heiji Disturbance (Heiji no Ran) in 1160 the Taira defeated the coalition of Fujiwara and Minamoto forces. This defeat marked the end of the Fujiwara's dominance. During the 13th century, the Fujiwara northern house was split into the five regent houses (五摂家): Konoe, Takatsukasa, Kujō, Nijō and Ichijō. They had a "monopoly" to the offices of sesshō and kampaku, and served in turn. The political power had shifted away from the court nobility in Kyoto to the new warrior class in the countryside. However, Fujiwara princes remained close advisors, regents and ministers to the emperors for centuries, until the 20th century. As such, they had certain political power and much influence, as often the rival warriors and later bakufus sought their alliance. Until the marriage of the Crown Prince Hirohito (posthumously Emperor Shōwa) to Princess Kuni Nagako (Kuninomiya Nagako Nyoō) in January 1924, the principal consorts of emperors and crown princes had always been recruited from one of the Sekke Fujiwara. Imperial princesses were often married to Fujiwara lords - throughout a millennium at least. As recently as Emperor Shōwa's third daughter, the late former Princess Takanomiya (Kazoku), and Prince Mikasa's elder daughter, the former Princess Yasuko, married into Takatsukasa and Konoe families, respectively.

Fujiwara regime in Heian period

The Fujiwara Regency was the main feature of government of the entire Heian era. Kyoto (Heiankyō) was geopolitically a better seat of government; with good river access to the sea, it could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. Just before the move to the Heiankyō, the emperor had abolished universal conscription in 792, and soon local, private militaries came into being. The Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed kampaku (regent for an adult emperor). Toward the end of the ninth century, several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897-930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly. Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Emperor Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform. Within decades of Emperor Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators." The Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Japanese writing had long depended on Chinese ideograms (kanji), but these were now supplemented by kana, two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana, a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and hiragana, a cursive form of katakana writing and an art form in itself. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late tenth century and early eleventh century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in Kagero Nikki ("The Gossamer Years") by "the mother of Michitsuna," Makura no Sōshi ("The Pillow Book") by Sei Shōnagon, and Genji Monogatari ("Tale of Genji")--the world's first novel--by Murasaki Shikibu. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e (Japanese style) paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day. Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families--all of whom had descended from the imperial family--attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally broke the peace of Japan. The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068-73), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Emperor Go-Sanjō, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Emperor Go-Sanjō also established the Inchō, or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei (cloistered government). The Inchō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the Inchō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government. A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1158 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto. In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. Within a year, the Taira and Minamoto clashed, and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, Minamoto Yoritomo (1147–1199) rose from his headquarters at Kamakura (in the Kanto region, southwest of modern Tokyo) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor Emperor Antoku they controlled, in the Genpei War (1180–1185).

Regents

Sessho and Kampaku

In Japan, the Sesshō (摂政) was a title given to a regent who was named to assist an emperor when the emperor was still a child, before the coming of age, or female. The Kampaku (関白 Kanpaku) was theoretically a sort of chief advisor for the emperor, but was the title of a regent who assists an adult emperor. During the Heian era, they were the effective rulers of Japan. There was little, if any, effective difference between the two titles, and several individuals merely alternated titles as child emperors grew to adulthood, or adult emperors retired or died and were replaced by child emperors. The two were collectively known as Sekkan (摂関).

Overview

The Sesshō and Kampaku had held the practical powers of the ruling emperor, conducting cloistered rule until shogunates took over the power from them. Most empresses had Sesshō with some exceptions in the ancient period. In earlier times only members of the imperial family could be appointed to Sessho. Kojiki reported that Emperor Ōjin was assisted by his mother the empress consort Jingū, but it is doubtful if it is a historical fact. The first historical Sessho was Prince Shōtoku who assisted Empress Suiko. The Fujiwara clan was the primary holders of the Kampaku and Sesshō titles. More precisely those title was held by the Fujiwara Hokke (Fujiwara north family) and its descendants, to which Fujiwara no Yoshifusa belonged. In 844 Fujiwara no Yoshifusa became Sesshō. He was the first Sesshō who didn't belong to the imperial house. In 876 Fujiwara no Mototsune, the nephew and adopted son of Yoshifusa, was appointed to the newly created office Kampaku. After Fujiwara no Michinaga and Fujiwara no Yorimichi, their descendants held those two office exclusively In 12th century there were five families among the descendants of Yorimichi called Sekke. Until 1868 those five families held those title exclusively with two exceptions of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and his nephew Toyotomi Hidetsugu. Sekke consisted in five families: Konoe family, Kujō family, Ichijō family, Takatsukasa family and Nijō family. Both Konoe clan and Kujō clan were derived from Fujiwara no Tadamichi, a descendant of Yorimichi. Other three families were derived from one of those two families. A retired kampaku is called Taikō (太閤), which commonly came to refer to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The office and title of kampaku fell out of use by convention with the appointment of the first Prime Minister of Japan during the Meiji Restoration. Emperor Meiji abolished the office in 1872.

List

Sesshō and Kampaku of the Heian Era

Famous Sesshō and Kampaku of the Kamakura period

- Kujō Yoshitsune (Sesshō 1202 – 1206 for Emperor Tsuchimikado)
- Kujō Michiie (Sesshō 1221 for Emperor Chūkyō, Kampaku, 1228 – 1231, 1235 – 1237 for Emperor Shijō)
- Nijō Yoshimi? (Kampaku 1242 – 1246 for Emperor Go-Saga, 1261 – 1265 for Emperor Kameyama)
- Ichjō Sanetsune (Sesshō 1246 – 1247 for Emperor Go-Fukakusa, Kampaku 1265 – 1267 for Emperor Kameyama)

Famous Sesshō and Kampaku of the Muromachi period

- Nijō Yoshimoto (Kampaku 1346 – 1358, 1363 – 1367, Sesshō, 1382 – 1387, 1388)
- Ichijō Tsunetsugu (Kampaku 1399 – 1408 for Emperor Go-Komatsu, 1410 – 1418 for Go-Komatsu and Emperor Sh&ōkō)
- Ichijō Kanera (Sesshō 1432, Kampaku 1447 – 1453 for Emperor Go-Hanazono, 1467 – 1470 for Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado)
- Ichijō Norifusa (Kampaku 1458 – 1463 for Emperor Go-Hanazono)
- Ichijō Fuyuyoshi (Kampaku 1488 – 1493 for Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado, 1497 – 1501 for Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado and Emperor Go-Kashiwabara)

Famous Sesshō and Kampaku of the Azuchi-Momoyama period

- Konoe Sakihisa (Kampaku 1554 – 1568 for Emperor Go-Nara and Emperor Ōgimachi)
- Toyotomi Hideyoshi (Kampaku 1585 – 1591 for Ōgimachi and Emperor Go-Yōzei)
- Toyotomi Hidetsugu (Kampaku 1591 – 1595 for Emperor Go-Yōzei)

Famous Sesshō and Kampaku of the Edo period

- Konoe Nobutaka (Kampaku 1605 – 1607 for Emperor Go-Yōzei)
- Konoe Iehira (Kampaku 1707 – 1709 for Emperor Higashiyama, Sesshō 1709 – 1712 for Emperor Nakamikado)

Sesshō of the modern era

Under the Imperial Household Law, the office of sesshō is restricted to the Imperial Family.
- Crown Prince Hirohito, later Emperor Shōwa (Sesshō 1921 – 1926 for the mentally disabled Emperor Taishō) ja:摂政・関白の一覧 Kampaku Seshhō --> Category:Government of feudal Japan Category:Japanese historical terms Category:Japanese nobility
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Emperor Tenji

] Emperor Tenji (天智天皇 Tenji Tennō) (626-672), also known as Naka no Ōe and Emperor Tenchi, was the 38th imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He was the son of Emperor Jomei but was preceded as ruler by his mother Empress Saimei. As Prince, Naka no Ōe played a crucial role in ending the near-total control the Soga clan had over the Imperial family. In 644, seeing the Soga continue to gain power, he conspired with Nakatomi no Kamatari and Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro to assassinate Soga no Iruka in what has come to be known as the Itsushi Incident. Although the assassination did not go exactly as planned, Iruka was killed, and his father and predecessor, Soga no Emishi, committed suicide soon after. Following the Itsushi Incident, Iruka's adherents dispersed largely without a fight, and Naka no Ōe was named heir apparent. He also married the daughter of his ally Soga no Kurayamada, thus ensuring that a significant portion of the Soga clan's power was on his side. Naka no Ōe reigned as Emperor Tenji from 661 to 672. In 662, he compiled the first Japanese legal code known to modern historians. Following his death in 672, there ensued a succession dispute between his fourteen children (many by different mothers). In the end, he was succeeded by his son, Prince Otomo, also known as Emperor Kobun, then by Tenji's brother Prince Oama, also known as Emperor Temmu. Almost one hundred years after Tenji's death, the throne passed to his grandson Emperor Kōnin. Tenji Tenji Tenji ja:天智天皇

Nara period

The Nara period (Japanese: 奈良時代, Nara-jidai) of the History of Japan covers the years from about AD 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara), where it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital Nagaoka-kyō at Nagaoka in 784 before moving to Heian-kyō, or Kyoto, a decade later in 794. Most of Japanese society during this period was agricultural in nature, centered around villages. Most of the villagers followed the Shinto religion, based around the worship of natural and ancestral spirits (kami). The capital at Nara was modelled after Chang'an (Xi'an), the capital city of Tang China. In many other ways the Japanese upper classes patterned themselves after the Chinese, including adopting the Chinese written characters (kanji) and the religion of Buddhism.

Nara period literature

Concentrated efforts by the imperial court to record and document its history produced the first works of Japanese literature during the Nara period. Works such as the Kojiki (古事記) and the Nihon shoki (日本書紀) were political in nature, used to record and therefore justify and establish the supremacy of the rule of the emperors within Japan itself and to China and Korea. With the spread of written language, Japanese poetry, known in Japanese as waka, started to be written. Over time, personal collections were referenced to establish the first large collection of Japanese poetry known as Man'yōshū (万葉集) sometime after 759. Chinese characters were used to express sounds of Japanese until kana were invented. The Chinese characters used to express the sounds of Japanese are known as man'yōgana.

Economic, social, and administrative developments

Before the Taihō Code was established, the capital was customarily moved after the death of an emperor because of the ancient belief that a place of death was polluted. Reforms and bureaucratization of government led to the establishment of a permanent imperial capital at Heijō-kyō, or Nara, in AD 710. The capital at Nara, which gave its name to the new period, was styled after the grand Chinese Tang Dynasty (618–907) capital at Chang'an and was the first truly urban center in Japan. It soon had a population of 200,000, representing nearly 4 per cent of the country's population, and some 10,000 people worked in government jobs. Economic and administrative activity increased during the Nara period. Roads linked Nara to provincial capitals, and taxes were collected more efficiently and routinely. Coins were minted, if not widely used. Outside the Nara area, however, there was little commercial activity, and in the provinces the old Shōtoku land reform systems declined. By the mid-eighth century, shōen (landed estates), one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan, began to rise as a result of the search for a more manageable form of landholding. Local administration gradually became more self-sufficient, while the breakdown of the old land distribution system and the rise of taxes led to the loss or abandonment of land by many people who became the "wave people," or rōnin (see Glossary). Some of these formerly "public people" were privately employed by large landholders, and "public lands" increasingly reverted to the shōen. Factional fighting at the imperial court continued throughout the Nara period. Imperial family members, leading court families, such as the Fujiwara, and Buddhist priests all contended for influence. In the late Nara period, financial burdens on the state increased, and the court began dismissing nonessential officials. In 792 universal conscription was abandoned, and district heads were allowed to establish private militia forces for local police work. Decentralization of authority became the rule despite the reforms of the Nara period. Eventually, to return control to imperial hands, the capital was moved in 784 to Nagaoka-kyō and in 794 to Heian-kyō (Capital of Peace and Tranquillity), about twenty-six kilometers north of Nara. By the late eleventh century, the city was popularly called Kyoto (capital city), the name it has had ever since.

Cultural developments and the establishment of Buddhism

Kyoto Some of Japan's literary monuments were written during the Nara period, including the Kojiki and Nihon shoki, the first national histories, compiled in 712 and 720 respectively; the Man'yōshū (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), an anthology of poems; and the Kaifūsō (Fond Recollections of Poetry), an anthology written in Chinese by Japanese emperors and princes. Another major cultural development of the era was the permanent establishment of Buddhism in Japan. Buddhism had been introduced in the sixth century but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily embraced by Emperor Shōmu. Shōmu and his Fujiwara consort were fervent Buddhists and actively promoted the spread of Buddhism, making it the "guardian of the state" and strengthening Japanese institutions through still further Chinese acculturation. During Shōmu's reign, the Tōdaiji (Great Eastern Temple) was built, and within it was placed the Buddha Dainichi (Great Sun Buddha), a sixteen-metre-high, gilt-bronze statue. This Buddha was identified with the Sun Goddess, and from this point on, a gradual syncretism of Buddhism and Shinto ensued. Shōmu declared himself the "Servant of the Three Treasures" of Buddhism: the Buddha, the law or teachings of Buddhism, and the Buddhist community. The central government also established temples called kokubunji in the provinces. The Tōdaiji was the kokubunji of Yamato Province. Although these efforts stopped short of making Buddhism the state religion, Nara Buddhism heightened the status of the imperial family. Buddhist influence at court increased under the two reigns of Shōmu's daughter. As Empress Kōken (r. 749-758) she brought many Buddhist priests into court. Kōken abdicated in 758 on the advice of her cousin, Fujiwara Nakamaro. When the retired empress came to favor a Buddhist faith healer named Dokyo, Nakamaro rose up in arms in 764 but was quickly crushed. Kōken charged the ruling emperor with colluding with Nakamaro and had him deposed. Kōken reascended the throne as Empress Shōtoku (r. 764–770). The empress commissioned the printing of 1 million prayer charms—the Hyakumanto dharani—many examples of which survive. The small scrolls, dating from 770, are among the earliest printed works in the world. Shōtoku had the charms printed to placate the Buddhist clergy. She may even have wanted to make Dokyo emperor, but she died before she could act. Her actions shocked Nara society and led to the exclusion of women from imperial succession and the removal of Buddhist priests from positions of political authority.

International relations

The Nara court aggresively introduced Chinese civilization by sending diplomatic envoys to the Tang court every twenty years (known as Kentō-shi). Many Japanese students, both lay and Buddhist priests, studied in Chang'an and Luoyang. One student named Abe no Nakamaro passed the Chinese civil examination to be appointed to governmental posts in China. He served as Governor-General in Annam or Chinese Vietnam from 761 through 767. Many students who returned homeland were promoted to high government posts like Kibi no Makibi. Tang China never sent official envoys to Japan, for Japanese kings, or emperors as they styled themselves, did not seek investiture from the Chinese emperor. A local Chinese government in Lower Yangzi Valley sent a mission to Japan to return Japanese envoys who entered China through the Manchurian kingdom of Bohai. The Chinese local mission could not return home due to the rebellion of An Lu Shan, ending up to be naturalized in Japan. The relation with the neighboring kingdom of Silla was initially peaceful. Japan and Silla exchanged diplomatic envoys regularly. But the rise of the kingdom of Bohai (Parhae in Korean) in Northeastern Asia destabilized the Japan-Silla relations. Bohai sent their first mission across the Sea of Japan to Nara in 728. Japan welcomed the Bohai mission, for the kingdom was a kind of restoration of the ancient kingdom of Koguryo with which Japan was allied until Koguryo was conquered by Tang and Silla in 668. The friendly diplomatic and commercial intercourse with Bohai continued until the Korean kingdom was conquered by Khitan in the tenth century. On the other hands, the relation with Silla deteriorated year by year, for the Nara court claiming Japan's suzerainty over Silla.

References

- - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]

< Asuka period | History of Japan | Heian period >

Category:Ancient Japan Category:Japanese eras ja:奈良時代

Soga

The Soga clan was one of the most powerful clans in Yamato Japan. For many generations, in the 6th and 7th centuries, the Soga monopolized the position of Great Royal Chieftain (Ō-omi) and was the first of many families to dominate the Imperial House, influencing the order of succession, and policy both domestic and foreign. Soga no Iname served as Great Minister from 536 until his death in 570, and was the first of the Soga to carry to extreme lengths the domination of the Throne by the nobility. One of the chief ways he exerted his influence was through marital connections with the Imperial family; Iname married one of his daughters to Emperor Kimmei. In an ironic way, the Soga unified and strengthened the country by expanding the power of the Emperor as a symbol and spiritual leader, even as they, a line of non-imperial nobles, took control of secular matters. When Buddhism was first introduced, many opposed it, disliking foreign ideas and resisting its spread. The Soga family, however, supported the introduction of Buddhism, placing a holy image of the Buddha in a major Shinto shrine; Soga no Iname claimed that Buddhism brought with it a new form of government that would subvert the independence of the clans, unifying the Japanese people under the Emperor. After fifty years of ideological war, Buddhism, defended and protected by the Soga, began to take hold in Japan. However, by 644, the heads of the Soga clan were no longer satisfied to act behind the scenes. Soga no Emishi and his son Iruka began to build more and more elaborate palaces and tombs for themselves, styling themselves sovereigns. There seems little doubt that they intended to do away with the reigning dynasty, making themselves the new imperial line. But the leader of the Nakatomi clan, Nakatomi no Kamatari, conspired with Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro and Prince Naka no Ōe, and arranged for Iruka's assassination. Emishi's followers dispersed, and many were subsequently killed. The Soga clan's hold over the imperial family was broken once and for all. Two years later, Emperor Kōtoku enacted the Taika Reforms, further unifying Japan, and returning power to the Throne, especially power over the nobility. Some Important Members of the Soga Clan:
- Soga no Iname - head of the Clan, served as Great Minister from 536 until his death in 570.
- Soga no Umako - succeeded to post of Great Minister in 570.
- Soga no Emishi - attempted to overthrow Imperial family in 640s
- Soga no Iruka - son of Emishi
- Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro - conspirator against Emishi and Iruka; became Minister of the Right in 645.

References

- Sansom, George (1958). 'A History of Japan to 1334'. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
- Hall, John Whitney, et al (1993). 'The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 1 Ancient Japan'. Cambridge University Press. Category:Japanese clans ja:蘇我氏

Taika Reform

The were a set of doctrines established by Emperor Kōtoku in the year 646. They were written shortly after the death of Shōtoku Taishi, and the defeat of the Soga clan, which united Japan. Crown Prince Naka no Ōe (who would later reign as Emperor Tenji), Nakatomi no Kamatari, and Emperor Kōtoku jointly embarked on the details of the Reforms. Emperor Kōtoku then took the name "Taika" (大化), or "Great Reform". The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas from China, but the true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the Imperial Court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn seemingly everything from the writing system, religion, literature, and architecture, to even dietary habits at this time. Until today, the impact of the reforms can still be seen in Japanese cultural life.

Background

The regency of Shōtoku Taishi was followed by a coup against the ruling Soga clan, from which Shōtoku's ancestry was derived. The new emperor Kōtoku, together with the Imperial Prince Naka no Ōe, issued a series of reform measures that culminated in the Taika Reform Edicts in 645. These edicts were written and sponsored by Confucian scholars in the Yamato court and in essence founded the Japanese imperial system and government. The ruler, according to these edicts, was no longer a clan leader, but Emperor (in Japanese, Tennō) that ruled by the Decree of Heaven and exercised absolute authority. Prior to the accession of Emperor Kōtoku, Japan was divided among many clans and warlords. These reforms were needed to bring all of these recently conquered and united people and lands under the control of the Emperor. In essence, they established the basics of the feudal system, under which lords could hold power within their lands, and could still exercise hereditary rights to land and titles, but under which all land ultimately belonged to the Emperor, and all loyalties were to the Emperor above all other lords and masters. To set an example to other nobles, the Crown Prince surrendered his own private estates to the public domain (the Emperor's control). The Reform Edicts demanded that all government officials undergo a Chinese-style civil service examination. It also severely curtailed the independence of regional officials and constituted the imperial court as a place of appeal and complaint for the people. In addition, the last edicts attempted to end certain social practices, in order to bring Japanese society more in line with Chinese social practices. Japan, however, was still largely a Neolithic culture; it would take centuries for the conceptual ideal of the Chinese-style emperor to take root.

Summary of the Four Articles of the Reforms

- Article I abolished private ownership of land & workers, deriving from "namesake", succession, or other means of appropriation.
- Article II established a central capital metropolitan region, called the Kinai (畿内), or Inner Provinces. A capital city was to be built there, and governors would be appointed.
- Article III established population registers, as well as the redistribution of rice-cultivating land equitably. It also provided for the appointment of rural village heads.
- Article IV abolished the old forms of taxes, and established a new system.

References

- Sansom, George (1958). 'A History of Japan to 1334'. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.

Kabane

Kabane (姓). Kabane were hereditary titles used in ancient Japan to denote rank and political standing. There were over 30 and some of the more common kabane included omi (臣), muraji (連), miyatsuko (造), kimi (君), atai (値), fubito (史), agatanushi (県主), suguri (村主), etc. The kabane were divided into two general classes. There were those who claimed they were descendants of the imperial line (皇別, kōbetsu), and those who claimed they were descendants of the gods (神別, shinbetsu). Of course there is no historical evidence for such distinctions. At first the kabane were administered by individual clans, but eventually they came to be controlled by the Yamato court. In 684 the kabane were reformed into the eight kabane system (八色の姓, yakusa no kabane). Later, as the clans began to devolve into individual households, the kabane system gradually faded from use. ja:カバネ Category:Japanese nobility

Emperor Mommu

Emperor Mommu (文武天皇 Mommu Tennō) (683-707) was the 42nd imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He was a grandson of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō. When his father, Crown Prince Kusakabe, died, he was only six years old. He took the throne in 697 and ruled until his death by illness in 707, at which point he was succeeded by his mother, Empress Gemmei, who was also his first cousin once removed and his first cousin twice removed. He left a young son by Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito: Obito no miko (Prince Obito), who eventually became Emperor Shōmu. Mommu Mommu Mommu ja:文武天皇

Emperor Shomu

Emperor Shōmu (聖武天皇 Shōmu Tennō) (701 - May 2, 756) was the 45th imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He was the son of Emperor Mommu and Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito. Shōmu's aunt and predecessor, Empress Genshō, gave him the throne when she abdicated in 724. In, 749, Shōmu himself abdicated in favor of his daughter, Empress Kōken, but continued to control the government. Shōmu is mainly remembered for commissioning the sixteen-meter high statue of the Vairocana Buddha in the Tōdaiji Temple of Nara. At the time, this was such a massive undertaking that later chroniclers accuse him of having completely exhausted the country's reserves of bronze and precious metals. The former emperor personally painted in the statue's eyes at the opening ceremony in 752 and declared himself a servant of the three treasures: the Buddha, Buddhist teachings and the Buddhist community, making this the closest anyone ever came to declaring Japan a Buddhist nation. He likewise established the system of provincial temples. Shōmu is also known as the first emperor whose consort was not born into the imperial household. His consort Kōmyō was a Fujiwara woman. The two had a son who died in childhood.

Notes

#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional lunisolar calendar used in Japan until 1873. May 2, 756 of the Japanese calendar corresponds to June 4, 756 of the Julian calendar.

External links

- [http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/nara/TODAIJI18.htm Vairocana Buddha at the temple of Todaiji] Shomu Shomu Shomu ja:聖武天皇

Heian

The name Heian may mean:
- The Heian Period, an era of Japanese history.
- Another name for Kyoto, a city in Japan formerly called Heian-kyō.

Regent

High public office

A regent, from the Latin regens 'who reigns' is anyone who acts of head of state, especially if not the Monarch (who has higher titles). Thus the common use is for an acting deputy governor. In a monarchy, a regent usually rules due to the actual monarch's absence, incapacity or minority, and may also be elected to rule during the sede vacante when the royal line has died out. This was the case in Finland and Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944. In San Marino, an ancient independent miniature republic surrounded within Italy, the "Captains Regent", or Capitani Reggenti, are two officials elected annually as joint heads of state and of government. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth kings were elected, which often led to relatively long interregna periods. It was the Polish primate who served as a regent, known at that time as an interrex (ruler between kings, as in ancient Rome).

Examples of regents in various Monarchies

It should be noted that those who held a regency briefly, for example during surgery, are not necessarily listed, particularly if they performed no official acts; this list is also not complete.

Belgium

- Prince Charles of Belgium, regent of Belgium from 1944 to 1950

Bulgaria

- Prince Kyril de Preslav, during the minority of his dead brother (Boris III)'s son, Simeon II.

China

- See Empress dowager and Grand Empress Dowager
- 2nd Prince Chun between 1908 and 1911 for Emperor Xuantong (aka Puyi)

Egypt

- Hatshepsut of Egypt for Thutmose III of Egypt
- Sherif Pasha Sabri for King Farouk I of Egypt
- Prince Mohammed Ali Tewfik for King Fuad II of Egypt

Finland

After the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia, the throne of the Grand Duke of Finland was vacant and according to the constitution of 1772, a regent was installed by the Finnish Parliament during the first two years of Finnish independence, before the country was declared a republic.
- Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, installed in January 1918, resigned in late 1918.
- General C.G.E. Mannerheim, resigned 1919 with the passing of the new constitution.

France

- Anne of Kiev, during the minority of her son Philip I
- Catherine de Medici:
- While her husband Henry II of France left the kingdom for the campaign of Metz.
- Later during the minority of her son Francis II of France
- Again during the minority of her second son, Charles IX of France.
- Anne of Austria, during the minority of Louis XIV
- Philippe II of Orléans (1715-1723), during the minority of Louis XV; often called "the Regent", since he was the last regent of France.
- The related era and style are commonly referred to as the Régence (analogous to the British Regency period).
- A 136 carat (27.2 g) diamond he acquired in 1717 is known as 'le régent'
- Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, while living in exile, self-declared Regent for his nephew Louis XVII of France after the 1793 guillotining of King Louis XVI.
- Empress Eugenie, three times for her husband, Napoleon III

Korea

- Daewon-gun, Lord Regent for his son King Gojong of Joseon

Liechtenstein

- Prince Alois is Regent from August 15, 2004.

Monaco

- Prince Albert was Regent from March 31, 2005 to April 6, 2005, when he succeeded his father as Albert II of Monaco

Netherlands

- Queen Emma, during the minority of her daughter Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Norway

- King Magnus Eriksson after stepping down from the throne in favour of his son Haakon Magnusson
- Crown Prince Haakon, during the illness of his father King Harald

Scotland

- Mary of Guise, during the minority of her daughter Mary Stuart
- James Stuart, 1st Earl of Moray, during the absence of his half-sister Mary Stuart
- James Stuart, 1st Earl of Moray, then Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, then John Erskine, 1st Earl of Mar then James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, all during the minority of James VI of Scotland

Spain

- Cardinal Cisneros, twice regent of Spain in the late 15th and early 16th century.
- Maria Christina of Austria, regent for the infant Alfonso XIII of Spain in the early 20th century.

Sweden

- Sten Sture the Elder the longest serving regent during the Kalmar Union
- Duke Charles after ousting the Catholic king Sigismund
- Axel Oxenstierna during the minority of Christina of Sweden
- Crown Prince Charles (Bernadotte) for his adoptive father Charles XIII

United Kingdom

- George IV, Prince Regent during the incapacity of his father, George III.

Other uses

Occasionally, the term regent refers to positions lower than the ruler of a country.
- In the Dutch republic of the United Provinces, the members of the ruling class, not formally hereditary but de facto patricians, were known collectively as regenten (the Dutch plural for regent)
- In the Dutch Indies, a regent was a native prince allowed to rule de facto colonized 'state' as a regentschap (see that term)
- Hence, in the succeeding republic Indonesia, the term regent is used in English to mean a bupati or local government official.
- Also used in private spheres, for instance, some university managers in North America are called regents, or the members of certain governing bodies of lofty institutions, such as the national banks, in France and (imitating) Belgium.
- Again in Belgium and France, but far lower on the social ladder, (Régént in French; or in Dutch) Regent is the official title of a secondary school teacher of the lower years (equivalent to junior high school), who does not require a college degree but is trained solely for education in a specialized écôle normale = normaalschool.

Nobility

s.—After a Miniature of the Tournaments of King Réné (Fifteenth Century) MSS. of the National Library of Paris."]] The nobility represents, or has represented, the higher stratum of a society in which social classes can be distinguished. The most distinctive feature of nobilty is that once acquired, it is passed to descendants, possibly according to some rules. The word "noble" in "nobility" also means "doing an act worthy of respect" to people.

Western nobility

Initially nobility descended from chivalry (or warrior class) in the feudal stage of the development of a society. Originally, knights or nobles were mounted warriors who swore allegiance to their sovereign and promised to fight for him in exchange for allocation of land (usually together with serfs living there). The invention of the Musket slowly eliminated the privately owned and operated armies of nobles in feudal societies during the time period of the Military Revolution. The nobility of a person might be either inherited or earned. Nobility in its most general and strict sense is an acknowledged preeminence that is hereditary, i.e., legitimate descendants (or all male descendants, in some societies) of nobles are nobles, unless explicitly stripped of the privilege. In this respect, nobility is distinguished from British peerage: the latter can be passed to only a single member of the family. The terms aristocrat and aristocracy are a less formal means to refer to persons belonging to this social milieu. Those lacking a distinct title, such as junior siblings of peers (and perhaps even the children of 'self-made' VIPs) may be considered aristocrats, moving within a small social circle at the apex of a hierarchical social pyramid. Blue blood is an English expression for noble birth or descent. It may simply refer to the delicate, pale skin favoured within that social circle, which more transparently reveals the blueness of the veins and arteries beneath. Possibly the term may be be an appelation describing prevalent argyria among the upper classes. Argyria is permanent bluish discoloration of the skin caused by ingestion of silver metal, which was widely used in table service and as a medicinal agent. In the modern era, in countries where the nobility was the dominant class, the bourgeoisie gradually grew in power; a rich city merchant was more influential than a minor rural nobleman. In France, influential high bourgeois, most particularly the members of the parlements (courts of justice), obtained nobility titles from the King. The old nobility of military origin, the noblesse d'épée ("sword nobility") became increasingly irritated by this newer noblesse de robe ("gown nobility"). In the last years of the ancien régime, before the French Revolution, the old nobility, intent on keeping its privileges, had pushed for restrictions of certain offices and orders of chivalry to noblemen who could demonstrate that their family had enough "noble quarterings" (in French, 'quartiers de noblesse'), a reference to a noble's ability to display armorially their descents from armigerous noble forebears in each of their lines of descent to demonstrate that they were descended from old noble families, who bore arms that could be quartered with their own male line arms, and thus prove that they did not derive merely from bourgeois families recently elevated to noble rank. A noble could be asked to provide proof of noble antecedents by showing a genealogy displaying 'seize quartiers' (sixteen quarterings) or even 'trente-deux quartiers' (thirty-two quartering) indicating noble descent on all bloodlines back five generations (to great-great grandparents) or six generations (great-great-great grandparents), respectively. Nobles typically commanded resources, such as food, money, or labor, from common members or nobles of lower rank of their societies, and could exercise religious or political power over them. Also, typically, but not necessarily, nobles were entitled to land property, which was reflected in the title. For example, the title Earl of Chesterfield tells about property, while the title Earl Cairns was created for a surname. However all the above is not obligatory; quite often nobility was associated only with social respect and certain social privileges. An example of the latter would be Polish szlachta. In the modern age, the notion of inherited nobility with special rights has become, in the Western World, increasingly seen as irrelevant to the modern way of life. The founding fathers of the United States rejected anything that may help in recreating a nobility; the French Revolution abolished the nobility and its special rights (though some nobility titles would be recreated by Napoleon I and III, they were mostly honorific). A list of noble titles for different European countries can be found at Royal and noble ranks. To learn how to properly address holders of these titles, see Royal and noble styles. Some con artists also sell fake titles of nobility, often with impressive-looking documents to back them up. These may be illegal, depending on local law. law

Nobility by nation

For full categorized countries, see :Category:Nobility by nation; some other follow:
- Armenian nobility
- Austrian nobility
- Belgian nobility
- Bohemian nobility
- British honours system
- Peerage, an exposition of great detail
- Chinese nobility
- Dutch Nobility
- Fijian nobility - the Ratu
- French nobility
- German comital titles
- Hungarian nobility
- Imperial Roman titles
- Roman aristocracy and bureaucracy
- Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy
- Imperial Russian nobility
- Boyars
- Dvoryans
- Korean nobility
- Malay titles
- Maltese nobility
- Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth nobility
- szlachta
- Japanese nobility
- Spanish nobility
- Swedish nobility

External links

- [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/odegard/titlefaq.htm European Noble, Princely, Royal, and Imperial Titles]
- [http://www.friesian.com/rank.htm Feudal Hierarchy (scroll down)]
- [http://www.heraldica.org/faqs/titel.htm A Glossary of Titles in 35 Languages]
- [http://www.genealogienetz.de/misc/nobility_faq.html The German nobility]
- [http://nobility.artsakhworld.com The Armenian nobility]
- [http://www.maltagenealogy.com The Maltese Nobility and its ilks.]
- [http://www.sardimpex.com/ Italian dynasties] GENEALOGIE DELLE DINASTIE ITALIANE (in Italian, with an introduction in English)
- [http://www8.informatik.uni-erlangen.de/cgi-bin/stoyan/wwp/LANG=engl/?1 WW-Person], an on-line database of European noble genealogy
- [http://pages.prodigy.net/ptheroff/gotha/gotha.htm Paul Theroff's An Online Gotha]
- [http://www.genealogics.org/index.php Genealogics, an extensive database of European nobles]
- [http://www.worldroots.com/ Worldroots, a selection of art and genealogy of European nobility]
- [http://www.royaute-noblesse.com Web site on the Royalty, the Nobility, the History and the Patrimony]
- [http://societe.org.co.nr/ Royal Society of Nord America] Category:Social groups Category:Positions of authority
-
- [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-blu1.htm Worldwidewords] sp. "sangre azul" blue blood zh-min-nan:Hôa-cho̍k ja:貴族

Governor

A governor is also a device that regulates the speed of a machine. See Governor (device). A governor is a governing official, usually in chief (at least nominally, to different degrees also politically and administratively) of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state; furthermore the title apllies to high ranking officials in private or similar governance such as commercial and non-profit management. Most countries in the world have some sort of official known or rendered as governor, though in some countries, the heads of the constitutive states, provinces, communities and regions may have a different title. This is particularly common in European nations and many of their former colonies, with titles such as President of the Regional Council in France and minister-president in Germany. Other countries using different titles for sub-national units include Spain, Italy, Switzerland. There can also be non-political governors: governors who simply govern an institution, such as a corporation or a bank. For example, in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries there are prison governors ("warden" in the United States), school governors and bank governors.

Etymology

The English word "governor" stems from the Latin gubernātor and the Greek kybernetes (helmsman or steersman), which in origin stem from the Latin gubernare and the Greek kybernan (to steer or govern). The recent English word "cybernetics" shares the same etymology. Strictly or etymologically speaking, the word "governor" is therefore supposed to be a metaphor derived from "steersman".

Pre-Roman empires

Although the legal and administrative framework of provinces, each administrated by a governor, was created by the Romans, the term governor has been a convenient term for historians to use in describing similar systems in antiquity. Indeed, many regions of the pre-roman antiquity were ultimately replaced by Roman 'standardized' provincial governments after their conquest by Rome.

Egypt

- In Pharaonic times, the governors of each of dozens of provinces in the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (called "nomes" by the Greeks, and whose names often alluded to local patterns of religious worship) are usually known by the Greek word Nomarch.
- The whole (or most) of Egypt was repeatedly reduced to the status of province of a larger empire under foreign conquerors, notably under an Achaemenid satrap (see below).

Mesopotamia and beyond

Assyria, a ruthless conqueror of a large empire, ...
- shaknu
- bel pihati

Pre- & hellenistic satraps

- Media and Achaemenid Persia introduced the satrapy, probably inspired by the Assyrian / Babylonian examples
- Alexander the Great and equally Greco-Macedonian diadoch kingdoms, mainly Seleucids (greater Syria) and Lagids ('Ptolemies' in hellenistic Egypt)
- in later Persia, again under Iranian dynasties :
- Parthia
- the Sassanid dynasty dispensed with the office after Shapur I (who had still 7 of them), replacing them with petty vassal rulers, known as shahdars

Roman empires and legacy

In ancient Rome

From the creation of the earliest Roman subject provinces a governor was appointed each year to administer each of them. The core function of a Roman governor was as a magistrate or judge, and the management of taxation and public spending in their area. Under the Republic and the early Empire, however, a governor also commanded military forces in his province. Republican governors were all men who had served in senior magistracies (the consulate or praetorship) in Rome in the previous year, and carried related titles as governor (proconsul or propraetor). The first Emperor, Augustus (who acquired or settled a number of new territories), divided the provinces into two categories; the traditionally prestigious governorships remained as before (in what have become known as "senatorial" provinces), while in a range of others he retained the formal governorships himself, delegating the actual task of administration to appointees (usually with the title legatus Augusti, although some small provinces received governors with other titles such as procurator). A special case was Egypt, a rich 'private' domain and vital granary, where the Emperor almost inherited the theocratic status of a Pharaoh. The Emperor was represented there by a governor sui generis styled Praefectus Augustalis (the very title evokes the religious cult of the Emperor). Diocletian and Constantine in the fourth century carried out a root and branch reorganisation of the administration. This had two main features:
- Provinces were divided up and became much more numerous; they were then grouped into dioceses, and the dioceses in turn into prefectures;
- Military responsibilities were removed from governors and given to new officials called comes or dux. In addition, Italy was brought into the system for the first time. The prestige governorships of Africa and Asia remained with the title proconsul, and the special right to refer matters directly to the Emperor; the Praefectus Augustalis in Alexandria and the Comes Orientis in Antioch also retained special titles. Otherwise the governors of provinces had various titles without obvious logic, some known as consularis, some as corrector, some as praeses. Apart from Egypt and the East (Oriens - viz greater Syria), each diocese was directed by a governor known as a vicarius. The prefectures were directed by praefecti praetorio (a role transformed from a very different one in the early Empire).

Byzantium

This system survived with few significant changes until the collapse of the empire in the West, and in the East the breakdown of order with the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. At that stage a new kind governor emerged, the Strategos a role leading the themes which replaced provinces at this point, and involving a return to the amalgamation of civil and military office which had been the practice under the Republic and the early Empire.

Legacy

While the Roman administration in the West was largely destroyed in the barbarian invasions, its model was remembered, and would again be very influential through two particular vehicles: Roman law and the Christian Church.

Holy Roman/ Habsburg Empires and successor states

- Reichskommissar

British Empire and Commonwealth

In the British Empire a governor was originally an official appointed by the British monarch to oversee one of his colonies. Generally of the gubernatorial offices established under the British, the structure comprised three levels:—
- Governor-General (formerly in charge of a group of colonies, and now also with largely ceremonial functions in relation to independent, sovereign Commonwealth Realms);
- Governor (in charge of a colony); and
- Lieutenant-Governor (in charge of a sub-colonial unit, usually styled a "province").
- (Note: colony in this sense means any separate jurisdiction inside the British Empire) In the first two cases the Governor (or Governor-General) represents the authority of the Monarch. Lieutenant-Governors represent the authority of their superiors (a Governor or Governor-General). Administrators, Commissioners and High Commissioners exercise similar powers (Note: such High Commissioners are not to be confused with the High Commissioners who are the equivalent of Ambassadors between Commonwealth states). A Governor would usually have an Executive Council to help with the colony's administration. Governors could also, in addition, have Legislative Councils and/or Assemblies underneath them. Today crown colonies of the United Kingdom continue to be administered by a governor, who holds varying degrees of power. Worldwide, there are 15 Governors-General who represent the dignity of the Monarch in the (sovereign) Commonwealth Realms. Because of the different constitutional histories of the former colonies of the United Kingdom, the term "Governor" now refers to officials with differing amounts of power. Especially after colonies became independent of the United Kingdom, the presence of the word "Governor" does not guarantee that the said Governor is the "typical British-style" Governor; examples include:
- Sri Lanka, once a colony governed by a single British Governor before independence, now has many "governors" controlling sub-national units
- Nigeria, also a colony once governed by a single British Governor before independence, now has many "governors" controlling sub-national provinces Governors (of all ranks) are usually housed in a building called 'Government House'. Governors used also to have a standard flag pattern (a Union Flag with the colonial seal or coat of arms in the centre). Governors-General still have a standard pattern flag, a blue flag with the royal crest (lion and crown) with the name of the jurisdiction on a scroll underneath. Below, the Governors described for Australia, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom overseas territories fit the traditional British framework as just described. The rest are not British-style governors.

Colonial style

United Kingdom overseas territories

In the United Kingdom's remaining overseas territories the governor is normally a direct appointee of the British Government and plays an active role in governing and lawmaking (though usually with the advice of elected local representatives). In some minor overseas territories there is instead of a Governor an Administrator or Commissioner, or the job is ex officio done by a High Commissioner.

Australia

Main article: Governors of the Australian states In Australia, each state has a Governor as its formal representative of the Queen as head of the state government. each State Governor is appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Premier (politically responsible head ofstate government) and play a largely ceremonial role. State Governors have emergency reserve powers but these are rarely used. The Territories of Australia have Administrators instead of governors, who are appointed formally by the Governor-General. The Governor-General is the representative of Australia's head of state (i.e. the -British and- Australian Sovereign) at a federal level appointed by the crown on the advice given by the Australian (federal) Prime Minister. When the office of the Governor-General is vacant, or the occupant is unable to discharge their duties (on holidays, or travelling overseas for example), frequently the most senior state governor acts in their position. If this is not practicable, a justice of the High Court is appointed as administrator for the Commonwealth, and exercises those powers of the Governor-General in their absence. The difference in terminology between the Australian state Governors and the Canadian provincial Lieutenant Governors is significant. In the Australian case, the Governor nominally derives power directly from the monarch and is in practice nominated by the Premier of a state. In the Canadian case, the Lieutenant Governor nominally is appointed by the Governor-General and in practice is named by the federal Prime Minister. See also:

- Governor of New South Wales
- Governor of Queensland
- Governor of South Australia
- Governor of Tasmania
- Governor of Victoria
- Governor of Western Australia

- List of Governors of New South Wales
- List of Governors of Queensland
- List of Governors of South Australia
- List of Governors of Tasmania
- List of Governors of Victoria
- List of Governors of Western Australia

Hong Kong

See Governor of Hong Kong.

Northern Ireland

There was a position of Governor of Northern Ireland from 1922 until the suspension of Stormont in 1973.

New style

India

In India each state has a ceremonial Governor appointed by the President of India. These Governors are different to the Governors which controlled the British-controlled portions of the Indian Empire (as opposed to the princely states) prior to 1949.

Malaysia

In Malaysia the four non-monarchical states -Penang, Malacca, and the two on Borneo : Sabah and Sarawak- each have a ceremonial Governor styled Yang di-Pertua Negeri, appointed by the federal King Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, with a seat but no vote in the federal majlis Raja-raja (council of rulers). These states have a separate head of government which is the Chief Minister or Menteri Besar. All other states have royalty as head of state, no governor : a raja in Perlis, a Yang di-pertuan besar (elected from local rulers) in Negeri Sembilan, or a Sultan in the states of Selangor, Pahang, Johore, Perak, Kelantan and Kedah.

Nigeria

In Nigeria, the leaders of the regions, which in 1967 were divided into states, have been known as governors since 1954. Following a military coup in November 1993, President Sani Abacha suspended all the governors, and appointed administrators. When democracy was restored in 1999, the office of governor was revived and new governors were elected. The president of Nigeria can suspend state governors in a state of emergency and replace them with administrators. They are elected by popular vote.

Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea, the leaders of the provinces have been known as governors since August 1995. Previously they had been known as premiers.

Sri Lanka

The provinces of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) are led by governors.

Russia and former Soviet Union

-Empress Catherine the Great -

Other modern Asian countries

People's Republic of China

In the People's Republic of China, the title "Governor" (省长) refers to the highest ranking executive of a Provincial Government. The Governor is usually placed second in the provincial power hierarchy, below the Provincial CPC Secretary (省委书记), who serves as the highest ranking Party official in the Province. A Governor can be also used when referring to a County Governor (县长).

Other modern countries in the Americas

United States

In the United States, the title governor refers to the chief executive of each state, not directly subordinate to the federal authorities, but the political and ceremonial head of the 'sovereign' state. The governor may also assume additional roles, such as the Commander-in-Chief of the State National Guard forces (when not federalized), and the ability to commute or pardon a criminal sentence. U.S. Governors serve four-year terms except those in New Hampshire and Vermont, who serve two-year terms. In all states, the governor is directly elected, and in most cases has considerable practical powers (notable exceptions with very weak governorships include Texas), though this is moderated by the state legislature and in some cases by other elected executive officials. They can veto state bills. In some cases legislatures can override a gubernatorial veto by a two-thirds vote, in others by three-fifths. In Tennessee the governor's veto can be overridden by an absolute majority vote making it virtually useless. The Governor of North Carolina had no veto power until a 1996 referendum. In most states, whenever there is a sudden vacancy of one of the state's Senate seats, that state's governor appoints someone to fill the vacancy until a special election is to be held, although the governors of Oregon, Massachusetts and Alaska no longer have this power. In colonial America, the governor was the representative of the monarch who exercised executive power, many colonies originally elected their governors, but in the years leading up to the American Revolutionary War, the king began to to appoint them directly. During the American Revolution, the royal governors were expelled, but the name was retained to denote the new elected official. See: List of United States Governors for past and present governors.
- Lieutenant Governor
- Governors of American Samoa
- Governors of Guam
- Governors of Northern Mariana Islands
- Governors of Puerto Rico
- Governors of U.S. Virgin Islands

Mexico

The elected heads of Mexico's 31 federal states are styled "governors" (gobernadores), closely following the U.S. model. See: List of Mexican state governors.

Brazil

Until the 1930 Revolution, the heads of the Brazilian Provinces then States where styled Presidents (presidentes), later governors and intervators (appointed by the federal goverment) and finally in 1945 only governors.

South America

Many of the South American republics (such as Chile and Argentina) have provinces or states run by elected governors, with offices similar in nature to U.S. state governors.

Other European countries and empires

Benelux monarchies

- In the Netherlands, the government-appointed heads of the provinces were known as Gouverneur from 1814 until 1850, when their title was changed to King's (or Queen's) Commissioner. In the Dutch crown's Caribbean Overseas territories, the style Governor is still used (alongside the political head of government) in the Netherlands Antilles as well as since 1986 on the neighbouring island of Aruba (separated from the former)
- In Belgium, the title of Gouverneur is used, in both the French and Dutch languages. There are presently 10 provinces, each with its own governor; the national capital, Brussels, does not belong to any, constituting a third 'capital' region (along with Flanders and Wallonia), with its own minister-president.

France & Napoleon

Italy

- The essentially maritime empire of the Venetian republic, comprising Terra Ferma, other Adriatic (mainly Istria and Dalmatia) and further Mediteranean (mainly Greek) possessions, used different gubernatorial styles, such as (castelleno e) provveditore (generale), baile

Papal & Vatican particularity

- In the various Italian provinces (former principalities and city-states) that became amalgamated as the Papal States, the Holy See exerced temporal power via its legates and delegates, including some cardinals
- Also in the southern French Comté Venaissin, the home of the popes during their 'babylonian exile', and retained centutries after, but never incorporated into the Papal States, Legates and Vice-legates were appointed
- The sovereign modern remnant of the formerly vast Papal States, the Vatican City State, is now a mere enclave in the capital of Italian Republic. It is too small to have further administrative territorial divisions, and so styles its equivalent of a Prime Minister, Governor and Mayor all roled in to one, as the Governor of Vatican City.

Turkish

In the Ottoman empire, various Pashas (generals) administered a province of the Great Sultan's vaste empire, with specific titles (such as Mutessaryf; Vali = Wali was often maintained or even revived in oriental successor states; cfr. Beilerbei (rendered as Governor-general, as he is appointed above several provinces under individual governors) and Dey)

Other modern African countries

Colonial entities

- Other countries then the UK with colonies in Asia, Africa and other areas, such as Germany, France, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands give some, but not always all, of the top representatives of (or rather in) their colonies the title of governor.
- Currently, the län (counties) of Sweden, the provinces of Finland, the states of Indonesia and some of the administrative divisions of Russia are among the areas which have leaders with the title of governor. See also:
- Governor of Macau
- Governor-General of Finland
- Governor-General of the Irish Free State
- Over-Governor of Stockholm
- Governor of the Straits Settlements
- Governors-General of Sweden
- List of County Governors of Sweden
- Governor of Hong Kong

Modern equivalents

As a GENERIC term, Governor is used for various 'equivalent' officers governing part of a state or empire, rendering other official titles such as :
- colonial High Commissioner (not the Ambassadors exchanged within the Commonwealth) And this also applies to non-western and/or antique cultures

Furthermore, the word has other meanings

- as an administrator and/or supervisor (individually or collectively, see Board of Governors) in the socio-economic spheres of life.
- Governor of the Bank of Canada
- List of governors of national banks of Serbia and Yugoslavia

Aristocracy

The Ancient Greek term aristocracy meant a system of government with "rule by the best". This is the first definition given in most dictionaries. The word is derived from two words, "aristo" meaning the "best" and "kratia" "to rule". Because everyone has different ideas about what is "best", especially in relation to government, the term is tricky to apply in this sense. Aristocracies have most often been hereditary plutocracies (see below), where a sense of historical gravitas and noblesse oblige demands high minded action from its members. As a government term, aristocracy can be contrasted with:
- meritocracy - "rule by those who most deserve to rule". While this has on the surface a nearly similar meaning to "aristocracy", the term "meritocracy" has usually implied a much more fluid form of government in which one is not considered "best" for life, but must continually prove one's "merit" in order to stay in power.
- plutocracy - "rule by the wealthy". In actual practice, aristocrats are often just plutocrats whose wealth allows them to portray their own virtues as the "best" ones.
- oligarchy - "rule by the few". Whether an aristocracy is also an oligarchy depends entirely upon one's idea of what are a "few".
- monarchy - "rule by a single individual". Historically, the vast majority of monarchs have been aristocrats themselves. However, they have also been very often at odds with the rest of the aristocracy, since it was composed of their rivals. The struggle between a ruling dynastic family and the other aristocratic families in the same country has been a central theme of medieval history.
- democracy - "rule by the people". For the past two centuries, democracy has been the greatest enemy of aristocracy. The conflict between them began with the American Revolution, the first democratic revolution, quickly followed by the French Revolution (the first in Europe), and continued throughout the 19th century, occasionally flaring up in violent episodes such as the revolutions of 1848. Arguably, the end of the First World War in 1918 marked the final victory of democracy over aristocracy, as all the old European monarchies (and implicitly their aristocracies) were deposed. Today, the aristocracy is mostly powerless and plays a largely decorative role in most countries where it still exists. There are also exceptions, however, such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

History

The term "aristocracy" was first given in Athens to young citizens who led armies from the front line with their swords up. Since military bravery was such a highly regarded virtue in ancient Greece, the armies were being led by "the best". From the ancient Greeks, the term passed on to the European Middle Ages for a similar hereditary class of military leaders often referred to as the "nobility". As in ancient Greece, this was a slave holding class of privileged men whose military role made them see themselves as the most "noble", or "best". Both aristocracies relied upon an established church to back up their claims of being "best" in the society. One of the key causes of the French Revolution was the idea that the traditional aristocracy no longer represented the "best" of its society. The army had been modernized by Louis XIV to a degree that aristocrats no longer rode at the front of their troops, but directed movements from a safe distance in many cases. It was difficult to abide the aristocracy's traditional privileges when they didn't earn them in the traditional way. The French Revolution focused on aristocrats as people who had achieved their status by birth rather than by merit, such unearned status being considered an affront to the bourgeoisie and new liberal norms. The term thus became symbolic of people who claim luxuries and privileges as a birthright, rather than people who claim the chance to die on the front lines as a birthright, a far cry from the original meaning of the term. In the United Kingdom and other European countries in which hereditary titles are still recognized, "aristocrat" still refers to the descendant of one of approximately 7,000 families with hereditary titles, usually still in possession of considerable wealth, though not necessarily so. In the United States and other nations without a history of a hereditary military caste, aristocracy has taken on a more stylistic meaning. In most cases, the usage is pejorative and refers to purveryors of snobbery, but "aristocrat" can also refer to an elegant person with a gracious lifestyle and strong sense of duty. This last meaning can be seen as taking the term back to its original roots.

External links

- [http://www.bbcfactual.co.uk/aristocracy.htm BBC series on recent history of European aristocracy]