Strönd

Strönd eða strandlengja er skilgreind sem land sem liggur að sjó, hvort sem það snýr beint að úthafinu eða er falið í vogi eða vík. Ströndin getur verið hamrar sem skaga þverhnípt út í sjó eða aflíðandi sandfjörur. Flokkur:Landform ja:海岸

Land

Land táknar oftast ríki eða viðurkennt svæði, sem heitir tilteknu nafni. Flest lönd eru afmörkuð hvert frá öðru með landamærum, sem hafa verið afskaplega breytileg og hreyfanleg í tímans rás. Sum lönd eru umlukin sjó eingöngu og hafa þá engin eiginleg landamæri. Þannig háttar til dæmis um Ísland og Japan. Önnur liggja að sjó að hluta og að öðrum löndum að hluta. Sem dæmi slíks má nefna Noreg og Danmörku. Þá eru einnig lönd sem eru algjörlega landlukt, en þau eiga hvergi land að sjó og allt umhverfis þau eru landamæri, sem liggja að einu eða fleiri öðrum ríkjum. Slík lönd eru sem dæmi Sviss og Tékkland. Til eru tvö lönd í veröldinni, sem kalla mætti tvílandlukt, en þau eru umkringd löndum, sem hvergi liggja að sjó. Þessi tvö lönd eru Úsbekistan og Liechtenstein. Í annarri merkingu er orðið „land“ notað um svæði almennt án vísunar til heitis sérstaklega. Sem dæmi um slíka notkun orðsins mætti taka þessa setningu: „Í Himalayafjöllum liggur land að jafnaði hærra en annars staðar á jörðunni.“ Þriðja merking orðsins er stórt eða smátt svæði á jörðinni, sem stendur upp úr sjó. „Land fyrir stafni!“ Að síðustu mætti nefna þá merkingu orðsins sem vísar til eignar tiltekins manns eða lögaðila. „Möðrudalur á Fjöllum er ein landmesta jörð á Íslandi.“ Flokkur:Landafræðihugtök ja:国

Flokkur:Landform

Flokkur:Landafræði Flokkur:Landmótunarfræði ja:Category:地形 ko:분류:지형

Computer Underground Digest

Computer Underground Digest (CuD) was a weekly electronic newsletter or ezine that was published from March 1990 to March 2000. It covered news, research, debates and discussion of legal, social and other issues related to computer culture.

History and Origins

What is CuD?

The Cu Digest was a more-or-less weekly digest/newsletter/journal of debates, news, research, and discussion of legal, social, and other issues related to computer culture. Because of editors' time constraints and changes in computer culture, CuD has likely published its last issue in March, 2000. [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/] Cu-Digest, or CuD, is a weekly on-line electronic journal/news digest. [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1]

Why did CuD stop publishing?

The primary question we have been asked in the last year is: "Does CuD still publish?" The answer is NO. Why? Time constraints, numerous other sources for similar information, and changes in editors' interests. It's fun for a decade, but time to move on. (jt - 1 December, 2000) [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1]

Goals/Purpose

The broad goal of CuD is to provide a forum for discussion and debate of the computer telecommunications culture. This culture especially includes, but is not limited to, the unique world of BBSes, Internet, and public access systems. We focus especially on alternative groups that exist outside of the conventional net community. We try to focus on a broad range of issues that include news, debates of legal, ethical, and technical issues, and scholarly research of relevance to a broad audience of professionals and lay persons. Other than providing a context for an article if necessary, the moderators
- DO NOT
- add commentary of agreement or disagreement. We see our role as one of facilitating debate, although we may take part in discussions in separate articles. [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1]

Editors

Jim Thomas publishes CuD from Northern Illinois University. Gordon Meyer is former co-editor. Gordon Meyer's MA thesis, "The Social Organization of the Computer Underground", was the first systematic attempt to place the social world of "phreaks, hackers, and pirates" in a context that looked at the culture, rather than the "deviance", of alternative uses of computer use. Gordon is currently a system engineer with a large national firm in the Chicago area. Jim Thomas, a professor of sociology/criminology at Northern Illinois University, is a prison researcher and qualitative methodologist. Gordon lured him into the "underground" world 1987, and he has since become interested in the legal and cultural issues of computer use. [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1]

Why Underground?

For some, the term underground connotes malice and a dark side of human activity. For others, including the CuD editors, it denotes alternative to conventional media. An electronic digest is an alternative to hard-copy forms of information sharing. Like the "underground," or "alternative" press of the counterculture of the 1960s or "underground music" or radio of the 90s, the "computer underground" refers to types of behavior or characteristics of a subculture that are unique, cohesively identifiable, possessing norms, roles, and social expectations that define participants, and are considered socially marginal by the dominant culture. Like the term "hacker," there were originally no negative connotations associated with "underground" when the term was first used. The name "Computer underground Digest" was suggested with a bit of irony prior to the first issue (how, after all, can a conventional digest that is publicly accessible be "underground?"). The name also is a play on the title of Gordon's M.A. Thesis, "The Social Organization of the 'Computer Underground'." Early discussions to change the name seemed impractical once the "CuD" monogram was established, and the name stands. [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1]

Circulation and Readers

As a conservative estimate, CuD currently reaches about 500,000+ readers each issue. About two percent of the readership receives CuD by direct E-mail. The rest read it from Usenet's comp.society.cu-digest, or obtain it from BBSes, public access systems (such as GEnie or America On-Line), and the ftp/www sites. Judging from a survey we took in 1990 and from the feedback we receive from readers, CuD readers cut across occupational, ideological, and age lines. The overwhelming majority (about 80 percent) of the readership is college graduates. About half is computer professionals or in related fields. The remaining half is distributed among a variety of professions (attorneys, journalists, academicians, law enforcement, students) and territory (the mailing list includes every continent. [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1]

External links

- [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/ Computer Underground Digest homepage]
- [http://venus.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/CUDS1/cud100.txt CuD Premiere issue]
- [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/other/backiss.html Archive of past issues]
- [http://www.soci.niu.edu/~cudigest/FAQS/faq.html#q1 CuD FAQ]

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