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Black Velvet

Black velvet

The black velvet, also known as a Bismarck, is a cocktail made from a stout beer (often Guinness) and a white, sparkling wine, traditionally champagne. A black velvet is made by filling a tall flute glass halfway full of chilled stout and floating the sparkling wine on top of the stout, with the differing densities of the liquids allowing them to remain largely in separate layers (as in a pousse-café). Apple cider or perry is sometimes used in place of the more expensive champagne, in which case the stout is floated on top of the cider or perry. This cocktail is known as a Poor man's black velvet. Whatever the top layer is, the effect is best achieved if it is poured over a spoon turned upside down over the top of the glass so that the liquid runs gently down the sides rather than splashing into the lower layer and mixing with it. A similar effect is achieved by mixing a dark and a light-colored beer in the black and tan cocktail, though the more similar specific gravities allow for less distinct layers. According to Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, the black velvet was the favorite drink of Otto von Bismarck, who supposedly drank it by the gallon. In Germany, the cocktail often goes by his name. ---- Black velvet is also velvet that is colored black. Black velvet is frequently used as a medium for paintings. It is the traditional vehicle for painted portraits of Elvis Presley, and for many other subjects meant to be seen under the light of a black light bulb. ---- "Black Velvet" is the name of a rock and roll song written by Canadian musicians David Tyson and Christopher Ward and first recorded by Canadian singer Alannah Myles in 1989. Category:Cocktails_with_beer Category:Cocktails with wine ja:ブラック・ベルベット

Cocktail

:For the 1988 film starring Tom Cruise, see Cocktail (film) Cocktail (film) In general, a cocktail is a mix of several substances, usually liquids. This article describes the cocktail as a mixed drink, usually containing one or more distilled alcoholic beverages and perhaps non-alcoholic drinks, ice and sometimes liqueur, fruit, sauce, honey, milk or cream, spices, etc. The cocktail became popular during Prohibition in the United States; to mask the taste of bootlegged alcohol, the bartenders at a speakeasy would mix it with other liquors and non-alcoholic drinks. Until the 1970s, cocktails were made predominantly with gin, whiskey, or rum, and rarely vodka. From the 1970s on, the popularity of vodka increased dramatically. By the 1980s it was the predominant base for mixed drinks. Many cocktails traditionally made with gin, such as the gimlet, may now be served by default with vodka. Non-alcoholic carbonated beverages which are nearly exclusively used in cocktails (or in non-alcoholic soda fountain drinks, such as the egg cream) include soda water, tonic water and seltzer. Liqueurs are also common cocktail ingredients.

History

Liqueurs The earliest known printed use of the word "cocktail" was in the May 13, 1806 edition of the Balance and Columbian Repository (A Hudson, New York publication), where the paper provided the following answer to what a cocktail was: :"Cocktail is a stimulating liquor composed of spirits of any kind, sugar, water, and bitters--it is vulgarly called a bittered sling and is supposed to be an excellent electioneering potion, inasmuch as it renders the heart stout and bold, at the same time that it fuddles the head. It is said, also to be of great use to a Democratic candidate: because a person, having swallowed a glass of it, is ready to swallow anything else." The first publication of a bartenders' guide which included cocktail recipes was in 1862: How to Mix Drinks; or, The Bon Vivant's Companion, by Professor Jerry Thomas. In addition to listings of recipes for Punches, Sours, Slings, Cobblers, Shrubs, Toddies, Flips, and a variety of other types of mixed drinks were 10 recipes for drinks referred to as "Cocktails". A key ingredient which differentiated "cocktails" from other drinks in this compendium, was the use of bitters as an ingredient, although it is not to be seen in very many modern cocktail recipes. During Prohibition in the United States (1919-1933), when alcohol consumption was illegal, cocktails were still consumed in establishments known as speakeasies. Not only was the quality of the alcohol available far lower than was previously used, but the skill and knowledge of the bartenders would also decline significantly during this time.

Etymology

There are several plausible theories as to the origin of the term "cocktail". Among them are:
- Some say that it was customary to put a feather (presumably from a cock's tail) in the drink to serve both as decoration and to signal to teetotalers that the drink contained alcohol.
- Another etymology is that the term is a corruption of coquetier, a French egg-cup which was used to serve the beverage in New Orleans in the early 19th century.
- The word could also be a distortion of Latin [aqua] decocta, meaning "distilled water".

External links

- [http://www.mixdrinx.com/ Select Cocktails, Mixed Drinks, and Party Ideas]
- [http://www.goodcocktails.com/ Good Cocktails - Mixed Drink Recipes, Cocktails and a Bartender Guide]
- [http://www.drinkswap.com/ DrinkSwap: 10,000+ cocktail recipes]
- [http://www.cocktaildb.com/ CocktailDB: The Internet Cocktail Database]
- [http://www.drunkdrinks.com/ Drunk Drinks: Cocktail, Shot and Mixed drink recipes]
- [http://www.webtender.com/ Virtual Bartender: Request any drink]
- [http://www.boozemixer.com/ Boozemixer: Drink Recipes]
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- [http://www.barfliers.com/ Barfliers: Cocktail Database and Bar'O'Pedia] ko:칵테일 ja:カクテル

Stout beer

Stout is a dark beer made using roasted malts or roast barley. It was originally a variant of porter beer. Porter was first recorded as being made and sold in London in the 1730s. It became very popular in Great Britain and Ireland. It has also been moderately popular in Canada and Australia especially, and has been gaining popularity in the United States, with many microbrew varieties now available. Generally, current or former British Commonwealth nations can each have their own local interpretations of the style. Stout from England is generally sweeter in flavor.

History

Originally, the adjective "stout" meant "proud" or "brave", but later, after the fourteenth century, "stout" came to mean "strong." The first use of the word stout about beer was the Stout-Porter brewed by Guinness of Ireland in 1820, although Guinness had been brewing porters since 1759. "Stout" still meant only "strong" and it could be related to any kind of beer, as long as it was strong: in the UK it was possible to find "stout pale ale", for example. Later "stout" was eventually associated only to porter, becoming a synonym of dark beer. During the end of the nineteenth century, stout porter beer got the reputation of being a healthy strengthening drink, so it was used by athletes and nursing women, while doctors often recommended it to help recovery. Stout differs from porter in being darker and richer through the use of more roasted malt, with a higher alcoholic content. As such the two beers are considered distinct, although sometimes it is difficult to distinguish what some breweries market as porter from a stout without looking at the label.

Types of stout

Stouts can be classed into two main categories, sweet and bitter, and there are several kinds of each:
- Irish stout or Dry stout is the original product. It is very dark in color and it often has a "toast" or coffee-like taste.
- Imperial stout was originally brewed in England for export to the court of the Tsar of Russia. It is highly hopped, very dark and has a very high alcohol content.
- Milk stout or Sweet stout or Cream stout has an increased sweetness due to the addition of lactose before fermentation.
- Oatmeal stout has oats added to it during the brewing process; this causes the beer to be even sweeter and smoother than the Milk stout.
- Chocolate stout uses malts that give a "dark chocolate" (though not necessarily sweet) flavour to the beer. A few beers are brewed with a small amount of real chocolate, though this may be regarded as something of a gimmick.
- Coffee stout is the darkest and most bitter type of Imperial stout; and typically brewed with the darkest malt roasts. A few, sometimes known as espresso stouts, are brewed with real coffee added, which can also be seen as a gimmick.
- Oyster stout is a stout related to oysters: this can mean that parts of oysters are added to the brewing process or simply that the taste is matching with oysters.

Examples of Stout

Examples of Stout are:
- Guinness - From Ireland, its alcoholic content and "dry" flavor are both characterized as light, although it varies from country to country.
- Murphy's - Another classic dry Irish Stout.
- Beamish - Slightly less dry than Guinness or Murphy's.
- Carbine Stout
- Mackeson's XXX - A typical English "sweet" Stout.
- Shakespeare Stout, brewed by Rogue Ales in Oregon.
- [http://www.widmer.com/beers/seasonals.html Snowplow], a seasonal milk stout created in collaboration between the [http://www.oregonbrewcrew.com/ Oregon Brew Crew] and [http://www.widmer.com/ Widmer Brothers] brewery in Portland, Oregon.
- Obsidian Stout, From Deschutes Brewery (also hailing from the Pacific Northwest).
- Ellezelloise Hercule Stout - a Russian Stout, brewed in Belgium.
- Dragon Stout - From Jamaica.
- Storm King Imperial Stout - an imperial Stout brewed by Victory Brewing Company.
- Sheaf Stout - From Australia.
- Sierra Nevada Stout - From California.
- Gillespie's Malt Stout
- Cornish Cream - a Stout produced in Cornwall.
- Baden Baden Stout From Brazil
- World Wide Stout - a very malty, high-alcohol chocolate Stout from Delaware's Dogfish Head Brewing.
- Pike Street XXXXX Stout - a coffee Stout from Washington's Pike Brewery.
- Bell's Double Cream Stout
- Young's Double Chocolate Stout
- Rogue Chocolate Stout
- Black Chocolate Stout brewed by Brooklyn Brewery
- Pyramid Espresso Stout - An espresso Stout from the Pacific Northwest.
- Heart of Darkness, an Oatmeal Stout brewed by Magic Hat Brewery
- Bare Knuckle Stout, brewed by Anheuser-Busch
- [http://www.mcauslan.com/en/products/staStout.html St. Ambroise Oatmeal Stout], brewed by [http://www.mcauslan.com McAuslan Brewery] in Quebec, Canada
- St. Peter's Cream Stout, brewed by St. Peter's Brewery in Suffolk, UK
- [http://www.yukonbeer.com/brews/mses.html Midnight Sun Espresso Stout], by [http://www.yukonbeer.com Yukon Brewing], Canada
- Selkirk Stout (cherry Stout), by Mount Begbie Brewing, Revelstoke, British Columbia, Canada.
- Coopers Best Extra Stout - brewed in Adelaide, South Australia
- Old Rasputin Russian Imperial Stout th:สเตาท์ Category:Types of beer Category:British cuisine Category:British beer

Guinness

:See also Guinness Book of Records. Arthur Guinness Son & Co., founded 1756, produces a dark stout beer (a type of porter), known widely as Guinness. This beer has been brewed at St. James's Gate Brewery, Dublin, Ireland since 1759, when Arthur Guinness signed a 9,000 year lease at IR£45 per annum for the unused brewery. Ten years later in 1769 Guinness exported their product for the first time. Six and a half barrels of Guinness Stout were shipped from Ireland to England. The word "stout" was not attached to the beer until the 1820s. It is also brewed under licence internationally; the resulting beer is, from all reports, significantly different. The Guinness brewery in Park Royal, London closed in 2005.

Composition

Guinness stout is made from four natural ingredients: water, barley, hops and yeast. The barley is roasted to give Guinness its dark colour and characteristic taste.[http://www.diageo.com/en-row/OurBrands/OurGlobalBrands/Guinness/] Despite the "meal in a glass" or "liquid bread" reputation the beverage has among some non-Guinness drinkers, Guinness only contains 198 calories (838 kilojoules) per imperial pint (1460 kJ/l), less than an equal-sized serving of skimmed milk or orange juice. Draught Guinness and its canned namesake contain nitrogen (N₂) as well as carbon dioxide (CO₂). Unlike carbon dioxide, nitrogen does not dissolve in water, which allows the beer to be put under high pressure without making it fizzy. The high pressure is required to force the draught beer through fine holes in a plate in the tap, which causes the characteristic "surge" (the widget in cans and bottles achieves the same effect). The perceived smoothness of draught Guinness is due to the low acidity and the creaminess of the head caused by the surging. "Original Extra Stout" tastes quite different; it contains only CO₂, making a more acidic taste.

Pouring and serving

widget Draught Guinness is considered at its best flavour when served cool, although not necessarily cold. It should be poured slowly at a 45° angle; about three quarters is poured and left to settle before the rest is added. The tap handle should be pushed forward, rather than pulled, when the beer is topped off. This creates the characteristic creamy head that lasts until the last sip. Recent advertising campaigns state that "it takes 119.6 seconds to pour the perfect pint" of Guinness. While this method of pouring (slow) is done in Ireland and the UK, many American bars seem to ignore the requisite 'slow pour'. Some bar tenders also draw a simple design in the head during the slow pour. Shamrocks and harps are quite popular designs for this. It is a common myth that Guinness is brewed using water from the River Liffey, which flows through Dublin close to St James's Gate. It actually comes from the Wicklow Mountains, specifically, Lady's Well.

Sinking bubbles

A long time subject of bar conversations has been the observation that gas bubbles travel downwards in a pint glass of Guinness. [http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/guinness/] [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/19/1079199418340.html] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/3516100.stm] The effect is attributed to drag; bubbles which touch the walls of a glass are slowed in their upwards travel. Bubbles in the centre of the glass are, however, free to rise to the surface, and form a rising column of bubbles. The rising bubbles create a current by the entrainment of the surrounding fluid. As beer rises in the center, the beer near the outside of the glass falls. This downward flow pushes the bubbles near the glass towards the bottom. [http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/guinness/why.html] Although the effect occurs in any liquid, it is particularly noticeable in any dark nitrogen stout, as the drink combines dark-coloured liquid and light-coloured bubbles.

Varieties

entrainment Guinness is available in a number of variants and strengths, which include:
- Guinness draught stout, sold in kegs—4.1 to 4.3 percent alcohol by volume (abv);
- Extra Cold draught stout, sold in kegs and put through a super cooler—4.1 to 4.3 percent abv;
- Bottled Guinness draught, which includes a patented "rocket widget" to simulate the draught taste—4.1 to 4.3 percent abv;
- Canned Guinness draught, which includes a similar but differently shaped widget—4.1 to 4.3 percent abv;
- Guinness Original/Extra Stout, as near to Arthur Guinness' original porter as can be obtained today—4.2 or 4.3 percent abv (England, Ireland), 5 percent abv (Canada, mainland Europe), and 6 percent abv (United States, Australia, Japan);
- Guinness Foreign Extra Stout, sold in West Africa, the Caribbean and Asia—5 percent abv (China), 6.5 percent abv (Jamaica), 7.5 percent abv (Africa) and 8 percent abv (Malaysia);
- Guinness Foreign Extra Stout Nigeria, uses sorghum in the brewing process instead of barley—sold in Nigeria and Great Britain—7.5 percent abv;
- Guinness Special Export Stout, sold in Belgium—8 percent abv;
- Guinness Bitter, an English-style bitter beer—4.4 percent abv;
- Guinness Extra Smooth, a smoother stout sold in Ghana, Cameroon and Nigeria—6 percent abv;
- Malta Guinness, a non-alcoholic sweet drink, sold in Africa. The Guinness brewery also makes other brands of alcoholic drinks, including Harp, Smithwick's and Kilkenny. The company has a regional franchise to produce Budweiser beer. Withdrawn Guinness variants include Guinness's Brite Lager, Guinness's Brite Ale, Guinness Light, Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout, Guinness Cream Stout, Guinness Gold, Guinness Pilsner and Guinness Special Light. Other withdrawn beers produced by Guinness include Enigma Draught Lager and Breo White Beer, as well as the St. James's Gate Beers: Pilsner Gold, Wicked Red Ale, Wildcat Wheat Beer and Dark Angel Lager. In October 2005, Guinness introduced the Brewhouse Series — a limited-edition collection of draft stouts that will be available for six months each. The first stout in the series in Brew 39, which is being released in Dublin from October 2005 to March 2006. It has the same alcohol content (abv) as Guinness Draught, uses the same gas mix and settles in the same way, but has a slightly different taste. Other variants will be on tap across Ireland. A brewing byproduct of Guinness, Guinness Yeast Extract (GYE), was produced until the 1950s.

Marketing

Guinness has a long history of marketing campaigns, from award-winning television commercials to beer mats and posters. Nigeria is the third largest and fastest-growing Guinness market in the world. However, as the cultivation of barley is restricted in Nigeria, the local version is made primarily from sorghum.

Advertising

Guinness uses the Brian Boru, or Trinity College Harp as their trademark. This circa 14th century harp which is still visible at Trinity College, Dublin has been used as a symbol of Ireland since the reign of Henry VIII (16th century). Guinness adopted the harp as a logo in 1862, however it is shown in a form that faces left instead of right as in the coat of arms. 1862Guinness's iconic stature can be attributed in part to its advertising. The most notable and recognisable series of adverts was created by Benson's advertising, primarily John Gilroy, in the 1930s and 40s. Gilroy was responsible for creating posters which included such phrases such as "Guinness for Strength", "Lovely Day for a Guinness", "Guinness Makes You Strong" "My Goodness My Guinness" and most famously, "Guinness is Good For You". The posters featured Gilroy's distinctive artwork and more often than not featured animals such as a kangaroo, ostrich, seal, lion, and notably a toucan, which has become as much a symbol of Guinness as the harp. Guinness has recently taken the dominant share in the African beer market with its Michael Power advertising campaign. Guinness advertising paraphernalia attracts high prices on the collectable market. In 2000, Guinness's 1999 advert "Surfers" was named the best television commercial of all time in a UK poll conducted by The Sunday Times and Channel 4.

Merchandising

During Saint Patrick's Day, Guinness merchandise is available in many places that sell the drink. This includes clothing and hats, often available from behind the bar after a specific number of pints of Guinness have been purchased. Guinness fans can visit the [http://www.guinness-storehouse.com/index.asp Guinness Storehouse] in Dublin, which has been described as Disneyland for the beer (or, perhaps, more accurately, stout) lover. Located on the site of the St. James' Gate brewery, the Storehouse is an interactive, multimedia experience taking you through all things Guinness.

History of ownership

The grandson of the original Arthur Guinness, Sir Benjamin Guinness, was Lord Mayor of Dublin and was created a baronet in 1867, only to die the next year. His eldest son Arthur, Baron Ardilaun (1840–1915), sold control of the brewery to Sir Benjamin's third son Edward (1847–1927), who became 1st Earl of Iveagh. He and his son and great-grandson, the 2nd and 3rd Earls, chaired the Guinness company into the 1980s, at which time non-family chief executive Ernest Saunders became chairman as part of the merger with leading Scotch whisky producer United Distillers. After Saunders was forced out following revelations that the United stock price had been illegally manipulated, the family presence on the board declined rapidly, and today no Guinness sits on the board of the holding company Diageo PLC.

Book of Records

The Guinness company also produced the Guinness Book of Records, which originated in 1955 when a debate in a pub after a hunt could not be settled with existing reference books. After merger with the firms of Arthur Bell and United Distillers, the firm became Guinness PLC, and was no longer headed by a family member. It combined with Grand Metropolitan to form Diageo PLC in 1997, at which point the Book of Records was sold to Gullane Entertainment, who in turn were purchased in 2002 by the book's current publishers, HIT Entertainment.

External links and references

- [http://www.guinness.com Official site]
- Forage, et al., "[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=4832968.WKU.&OS=PN/4832968&RS=PN/4832968 Beverage package and a method of packaging a beverage containing gas in solution]". United States Patent 4,832,968. May 23, 1989.
- [http://www.fluent.com/about/news/pr/pr5.htm Scientific explanation of Guinness bubble circulation] Category:Irish breweries Category:Food Companies of Ireland Category:Brands of beer ja:ギネス

Champagne (beverage)

Champagne is a sparkling wine produced by inducing the secondary fermentation of wine. It is named after the Champagne region of France. While the term "champagne" is often used by makers of sparkling wine in other parts of the world, such as California and Canada, it should properly be used to refer only to the wines made in the region of Champagne, France. The community, under the auspices of the Comité Interprofessionel du Vin de Champagne has developed a comprehensive set of rules and regulations for all wine that comes from the region. These rules are designed to ensure that the highest quality product is produced and include a codification of the most suitable places for grapes to grow, the most suitable types of grapes – all Champagne is produced from one or a blend of up to three varieties of grapes: chardonnay, pinot noir, and pinot meunier – and has identified a lengthy set of requirements that specify most aspects of viticulture. This includes vine pruning, the yield of the vineyard, the degree of pressing applied to the grapes, and the time that bottles must remain on the lees. Only if a wine meets all these requirements may the name Champagne be placed on the bottle. The rules that have been agreed upon by the CIVC are then presented to the INAO for final approval. In Europe and most other countries, the name "champagne" is legally protected as part of the Treaty of Madrid (1891) to mean only sparkling wine produced in its namesake region and adhering to the standards defined for that name as an Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée. This right was reaffirmed in the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. Even the term méthode champenoise, or champagne method is, as of 2005, forbidden in favor of méthode traditionelle. There are sparkling wines made all over the world, and many use special terms to define their own sparkling wines: Spain uses Cava, Italy calls it spumante, and South Africa uses Cap Classique. A sparkling wine made from Muscat grapes in Italy uses the DOCG Asti. In Germany, Sekt is a common sparkling wine. Even other regions of France are forbidden to use the name Champagne; for example, wine-makers in Burgundy and Alsace produce Crémant. Other sparkling wines not from Champagne sometimes use the term "sparkling wine" prominently on their label. While most countries have labeling laws that protect wine producing locations such as Champagne, some – including the United States – continue to allow U.S. wine producers to utilize the name “Champagne” on the label of products that do not come from Champagne. To allow this practice, the U.S. Congress passed a law claiming that the term "Champagne" is semi-generic. This often leads to consumer confusion about genuine Champagne and is seen as deceptive by some consumers and wine experts. While some U.S. companies ironically claim that their long usage of the term prevents them from dropping the word champagne on the bottle, many quality U.S. sparkling winemakers have ceased use of the term, instead favoring "sparkling wine" as their identifier. Champagne's sugar content varies. The sweetest level is doux (meaning sweet), proceeding in order of increasing dryness to demi-sec (half-dry), sec (dry), extra sec (extra dry), brut (almost completely dry), and extra brut / brut nature / brut zero (no additional sugar, sometimes ferociously dry.).

How is Champagne made?

Grapes used for Champagne are generally picked earlier, when sugar levels are lower and acid levels higher. Except for pink or rosé Champagnes, the juice of harvested grapes is pressed off quickly, to keep the wine white. The traditional method of making Champagne is known as the Méthode Champenoise. The first fermentation begins in the same way as any wine, converting the natural sugar in the grapes into alcohol while the resultant carbon dioxide is allowed to escape. This produces the "base wine". This wine is not very pleasurable by itself, being too acidic. At this point the blend is assembled, using wines from various vineyards, and, in the case of non-vintage Champagne, various years. The blended wine is put in bottles along with yeast and a small amount of sugar, called the liqueur de tirage, and stored in a wine cellar horizontally, for a second fermentation. During the secondary fermentation the carbon dioxide is trapped in the bottle, keeping it dissolved in the wine. The amount of added sugar will determine the pressure of the bottle. To reach the standard value of 6 bars inside the bottle is necessary to have 18 grams of sugar, and the amount of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is regulated by the European Commission (Regulation 1622/2000, 24 July 2000) to be 0.3 grams per bottle. The "liqueur de tirage" is then a mixture of sugar, yeast and still champagne wine. After ageing (a mimimum from one to three years), they undergo a process known as riddling (remuage in French), in which they are rotated a small amount each day and gradually moved to a neck-down orientation, so that the sediment ('lees') collects in their necks and can be removed. The removal process is called "disgorging" (dégorgement in French), and was a skilled manual process, where the cork and the lees were removed without losing large quantities of the liquid, and a dosage (a varying amount of additional sugar) is added. The bottle is then recorked. Until this process was invented (reputedly by Madame Clicquot in 1800) Champagne was cloudy, a style still seen occasionally today under the label méthode ancestrale. Modern disgorgement is automated by freezing a small amount of the liquid in the neck and removing this plug of ice containing the lees. Wines from Champagne cannot legally be sold until it has aged on the lees in the bottle for at least 18 months. Champagne's AOC regulations require that vintage Champagnes are aged in cellars for three years or more before disgorgement, but many top producers exceed this minimum requirement, holding bottles on the lees for 6 to 8 years before disgorgement. Even experts disagree about the effects of aging on Champagne after disgorgement. Some prefer the freshness and vitality of young, recently disgorged Champagne, and others prefer the baked apple and caramel flavors that develop from a year or more of aging. The majority of the Champagne produced is non-vintage, a blend of wines from several years. Typically the majority of the wine is from the current year but a percentage is made of "reserve wine" from previous years. This serves to smooth out some of the vintage variations caused by the marginal growing climate in Champagne. Most Champagne houses strive for a consistent "house style" from year to year, and this is the hardest task of the winemaker. Good-quality vintage Champagnes are the product of a single high-quality year, and bottles from prestigious makers can be rare and expensive.

Champagne Varieties

Madame Clicquot Champagne is a single Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée. Grapes must be the white Chardonnay, or the red Pinot Noir or Pinot Meunier (a few very rare other grapes that were historically important are allowed, but very unusual). Champagnes made exclusively from Chardonnay are known as blanc de blancs, and those exclusively from the red grapes as blanc de noirs. Champagne is typically a white wine even if it is produced with red grapes, because the juice is extracted from the grapes using a gentle process that minimizes the amount of time the juice spends in contact with the skins, which is what makes red wine red. Rosé wines are also produced, either by permitting the juice to spend more time with the skins to impart a pink color to the wine, or by adding a small amount of red wine during blending. The amount of sugar (dosage) added after the second fermentation and ageing also varies, from brut zéro or brut natural, where none is added, through brut, extra-dry, sec, demi-sec and doux. The most common is brut, although in the early 20th century Champagne was generally much sweeter. Most Champagne is non-vintage, produced from a blend of years (the exact blend is only mentioned on the label by a few growers), while that produced from a single vintage is labelled with the year and Millésimé. Many Champagnes are produced from bought-in grapes by well known brands such as Veuve Clicquot or Mumm.

Origins

Wines from the Champagne region were already known before medieval times. Churches owned vineyards, and monks produced wine for use in the sacrament of Eucharist. French kings were traditionally anointed in Reims. Champagne wine flowed as part of coronation festivities. Kings appreciated the still, light, and crisp wine, and offered it as an homage to other monarchs in Europe. In the 17th century, still wines of Champagne were the chosen wines for celebration in European countries. English people were the biggest consumers of Champagne wines, and drank a lot of sparkling wines. The first commercial sparkling wine was produced in the Limoux area of Languedoc about 1535. They did not invent it; nobody knows who first made it, although the British make a reasonably good claim. Contrary to legend and popular belief, the French monk Dom Perignon did not invent champagne, although it is almost certainly true that he developed many advances in the production of this wondrous beverage. Somewhere in the end of the 17th century, the sparkling method was imported in the Champagne region, associated with specific procedures for production (smooth pressing, dosage...), and stronger bottles (invented in England) that could hold the added pressure. Around 1700, sparkling Champagne was born. English people loved the new sparkling wine, and spread it all over the world. Brut Champagne, the modern Champagne, was created for the British in 1876. The Russian royalty also consumed huge quantities, preferring the sweeter styles.

The Comité Interprofessional du Vin de Champagne

All of the over 15,000 growers, cooperatives and over 300 houses that are central to producing Champagne are members of the Comité Interprofessional du Vin de Champagne (CIVC). This organization has a system where both the houses and the growers are represented at all levels. This includes a co-presidency where a grower representative and a representative of the houses share the running of the organization. This system is designed to ensure that the CIVC's primary mission -- to promote and protect Champagne -- is done in a manner that represents the consensus of the community. This power structure has played an important role in the success of Champagne worldwide and the integrity of the appellation itself.

Champagne producers

Main article : List of champagne producers The type of champagne producer can be identified from the abbreviations followed by the official number on the bottle:
- NM: négotiant-manipulant. These companies (including the majority of the larger brands) buy grapes and make the wine
- CM: co-opérative de manipulant. Co-operatives that make wines from the growers who are members, with all the grapes pooled together
- RM: récoltant-manipulant. A grower that also makes wine from their own grapes
- SR: société récoltantes. An association of growers making a shared Champagne but who are not a co-operative
- RC: récoltant co-opérateur. A co-operative member selling Champagne produced by the co-operative under his own name
- MA: marque-auxiliaire or marque d'acheteur. A brand name unrelated to the producer or grower; the name is owned by someone else, for example a supermarket
- ND: négoçiant distributeur. A wine merchant selling under his own name

Bubbles

Bubbles in Champagne are commonly believed to be formed in impurities in the glass that act as nucleation sites. However, these naturally occuring impurities are actually too small for this purpose, as shown by Gérard Liger-Belair, Richard Marchal, and Philippe Jeandel with a high-speed video camera. Champagne glasses may be intentionally etched by the manufacturer to provide a consistant source of bubble nucleation sites. However, etching aside, in general, the bubbles form on cellulose fibres, either from dust in the air, or left over from the wiping/drying process.
References are:
Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 53(2):151-153 (2002) abstract. here:
- http://www.asev.org/Journal/Volumes/53_2/Pgs151-153%20Abstract.pdf
Copy of paper in Europhysics News (2002) Vol. 33 No. 1here:
- http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/13/article3/article3.html
Another paper ( Ann. Phys. Fr., Vol. 27, N°4 July/August 2002, pp. 1-106) here:
- http://www.edpsciences.org/articles/anphys/abs/2002/04/ann042002/ann042002.html
It is interesting to note that Dom Perignon was originally charged by his wine-making Abbey of Hautvillers to get the bubbles out of their Champagne.

Champagne bottles

Abbey of Hautvillers, full, half, quarter. On floor: Balthazar, Salmanazar, Methuselah, Jeroboam ]] Champagne is mostly fermented in two sizes bottles, standard bottle (750 mL), and Magnum (1.5 L). In general, magnums are thought to be higher quality, as there is less oxygen in the bottle, and the volume to surface area favors the creation of appropriately-sized bubbles. However, there is no hard evidence for this view. Other bottle sizes, named for Biblical figures, are generally filled with Champagne that has been fermented in standard bottles or magnums. List of bottle sizes:
- quarter bottle (aka. split or piccolo bottle) (187.5 or 200 ml)
- mainly used by airlines and nightclubs.
- half-bottle (aka. Demi) (375 ml)
- used in restaurants
- bottle (aka. Imperial) (750 ml)
- Magnum (1.5 L) (equivalent to 2 bottles)
- Jeroboam (3 L) (4 bottles)
- Rehoboam (4.5 L) (6 bottles)
- Methuselah (6 L) (8 bottles)
- Salmanazar (9 L) (12 bottles)
- Balthazar (12 L) (16 bottles)
- Nebuchadnezzar (15 L) (20 bottles)
- Melchior (18 L) (24 bottles)
- Solomon (25 L)
- Primat (27 L) (36 bottles)
- Melchizedek (30 L) (40 bottles) Sizes larger than Jeroboam are rare. Primat sized bottles - and as of 2002 Melchizedek sized bottles - are exclusively offered by the House Drappier. The same names are used for bottles containing wine and port; however, up to Methuselah they refer to different bottle volumes. On occasion unique sizes have been made for special occasions and people. The most notable example perhaps being the 20 fluid ounce/ 60cl. bottle (Imperial pint) made specially for Sir Winston Churchill by Pol Roger. This was served to Mr Churchill by his butler at 11am as he was getting up. Drappier

Opening Champagne bottles

The deliberate spraying of Champagne has become an integral part of sports trophy presentations and locker room celebrations, though Champagne enthusiasts sometimes cringe at the waste. To reduce the risk of spilling Champagne and/or turning the cork into a projectile, open a Champagne bottle as follows:
- Remove the foil;
- Place your hand over the cork;
- Loosen but don't remove the wire cage;
- Grasp the cork and the cage firmly with your hand, then rotate the bottle (rather than the cork) by holding it at the base; this should allow the cork to come out on its own accord. The desired effect is to ease the cork out with a satisfying pop rather than to shoot the cork across the room or produce a fountain of foamy wine. Most wine connoisseurs insist that the ideal way to open a bottle of Champagne is to do it so carefully and gently that very little sound is emitted at all, just a sigh or a whisper.

Sabrage

A sabre can be used to open a Champagne bottle with great ceremony. This technique is called sabrage. The sabre is slid along the body of the bottle toward the neck. The force of the blade hitting the lip separates the lip from the neck of the bottle. The cork and lip remain together after separating from the neck. Sabrage does not involve a slicing motion. To properly execute, one should:
- Select a heavy sabre, with a rather short blade and broad back;
- Hold in one hand the sabre. Use the back and not the cut of the blade;
- Hold in the other hand the Champagne bottle on its lowest part, the wire cage loosened or removed;
- Touch and slide the blade alongside the bottle until it hits the swelling on the bottleneck. The jolt will break the bottle and its tip will fly away in a trajectory;
- Have part of the spray spill out in order to wash away potential glass splinters; Using the sabre method is not particularly difficult, but some precautions are necessary:
- The sabre is a weapon and might be dangerous;
- The tip of the bottle will fly away with force. Keep the foreseen trajectory free of obstacles;
- Check fluid for glass splinters before drinking;

Serving Champagne

Champagne is usually served in a champagne flute, whose characteristics include a long stem with a tall, narrow bowl and opening. The wider flat glass (cup) commonly associated with Champagne is no longer preferred by connoisseurs because it does not preserve the bubbles and aroma of the wine as well. But Champagne is better for tasting with a big red wine glass (i.e. a glass for bordeaux), as the aroma spreads better in the large area of the glass, but contrary to the cup, the aroma stays in the glass. Don't try to fill the glass: flutes shall be filled only 2/3 of the glass, and big red wine glasses not more than 1/3 of the glass. Champagne is always served cold, and is best at the temperature 7C° (43 to 48°F). Often the bottle is chilled in a bucket of ice and water before and after opening. Champagne buckets are made specifically for this purpose.

External links

- [http://www.intowine.com/champagne.html Celebrating Champagne]
- [http://www.champagne.com/ Official site] of the Comité Interprofessionel du Vin de Champagne trade association
- [http://www.champagne.us/ Official site] of the Office of Champagne, USA
- [http://www.epicurious.com/drinking/wine_dictionary/entry?id=5835 Article on champagne] from The Wine Lover's Companion
- [http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/7811.html Uncorked: The Science of Champagne], a book by a Université de Reims – Champagne-Ardenne professor who is also a consultant for Moët et Chandon Category:Wines Category:Champagne wine AOCs Category:Sparkling wines Category:Branded foods ja:シャンパン

Relative density

Relative density (also known as specific gravity) is a measure of the density of a material. It is dimensionless, equal to the density of the material divided by the density of water (or, sometimes used for gases, of air). Since water's density is 1.0 × 10³ kg/m³ in SI units, the relative density of a material is approximately the density of the material measured in kg / m³ divided by 1000 (the density of water). There are no units of measurement. Water's density can also be measured as nearly one gram per cubic centimetre (at maximum density) in metric units. The relative density therefore has nearly the same value as density of the material expressed in grams per cubic centimetre, but without any units of measurement. Relative density or specific gravity are often ambiguous terms. This quantity is often stated for a certain temperature. Sometimes when this is done, it is a comparison of the density of the commodity being measured at that temperature, with the density of water at the same temperature. But they are also often compared to water at a different temperature. Relative density is often expressed in forms similar to this: :relative density:

8.15_^ \,\,

or specific gravity:

2.432_0^

The superscripts indicate the temperature at which the density of the material is measured, and the subscripts indicate the temperature of the water to which it is compared. Density of water calculated from formula in 68th CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 1987–1988. Water is nearly incompressible. But it does compress a little; it takes pressures over about 400 kPa or 4 atmospheres before water can reach a density of 1000.000 kg/m³ at any temperature. Relative density is often used by geologists and mineralogists to help determine the mineral content of a rock or other sample. Gemologists use it as an aid in the identification of gemstones. The reason that relative density is measured in terms of the density of water is because that that is the easiest way to measure it in the field. Basically, density is defined as the mass of a sample divided by its volume. With an irregularly shaped rock, the volume can be very difficult to accurately measure. The most accurate way is to put it in a water-filled graduated cylinder and see how much water it displaces. It is also possible to simply suspend the sample from a spring scale and weigh it under water. Solving Isaac Newton's equations yields the following formula for measuring specific gravity: :

G = \frac

where G is the relative density, W is the weight of the sample (measured in pounds-force, newtons, or some other unit of force), and F is the force, measured in the same units, while the sample was submerged. Note that with this technique it is difficult to measure relative densities less than one, because in order to do so, the sign of F must change, requiring the measurement of the downward force needed to keep the sample underwater. Another practical method uses three measurements. The mineral sample is weighed dry. Then a container of water is weighed, and weighed again with the sample immersed. Subtracting the last two readings gives the weight of the displaced water. The relative density result is the dry sample weight divided by that of the displaced water. This method works with scales that can't easily accommodate a suspended sample, and also allows for measurement of samples that are less dense than water. Category:Physical quantity ja:比重

Cider

Cider (also spelled: cyder) refers to a beverage containing the juice of apples. In Europe and Oceania, the term refers to fermented apple juice. In North America cider is normally unfermented; when fermented, it is known as "hard cider" or "alcoholic cider".

Alcoholic ciders

In Europe and Oceania cider is an alcoholic drink made from fermented apple juice. It is often stronger than beer, and is frequently over 6% alcohol by volume. The common eating apples are unsuitable for cidermaking, being low in tannins; specific apple cultivars bred especially for cidermaking are preferred. Cider comes in a variety of tastes, from sweet to dry. Sweet cider tends to be popular with young people. Modern, mass-produced ciders are generally heavily processed and resemble sparkling wine in appearance. More-traditional brands, often known as scrumpy, tend to be darker and more cloudy, as less of the apple is filtered out. They are often stronger than processed varieties. "White cider" is made by processing cider after the traditional brewing process is complete, resulting in a nearly white product. This processing allows the manufacturer to produce strong (typically 7-8% ABV) cider cheaply, quickly, and on an industrial scale, often from poor raw materials.

Unfermented cider

ABV In North America, cider was traditionally fermented, but that alcoholic apple drink (see below) is now referred to as hard cider or as alcoholic cider. Today in North America, cider is a nonalcoholic beverage; a subcategory of apple juice, traditionally made from early-harvest apples, which have a lower sugar content and are more acidic, thus cider has a more tart, tangy taste than apple juice. It is generally (though not always) unfiltered, giving it an opaque appearance from suspended solids. It is occasionally still sold unpasteurized, which is considered to have a better flavor, however, due to the possibility of salmonella and E. coli infection, most apple cider is pasteurized. Apple ciders are often made from blends of several different apples to give a balanced taste. Some businesses may try to pass off standard apple juice as cider. There is some local competitiveness among cider mills in apple country for the highest quality blends, and makers keep their formulas secret. One trick used to add interest to a cider blend is the addition of a percentage of crabapples. Cider doughnuts are often sold at cider mills and contain cider in the batter. Hot cider or mulled cider is a popular fall (autumn) and winter beverage, consisting of (nonalcoholic) cider, heated to a temperature just below boiling, with cinnamon, orange peel, nutmeg, cloves, and other spices added. Another cider available in the US is sparkling cider, a carbonated nonalcoholic beverage made from filtered apple cider or apple juice.

Brands of cider

carbonated
- Ashlar
- Aspall
- [http://www.beakandskiff.com/ Beak and Skiff]
- [http://www.cidery.com/ Bellweather Cider]
- Biddedon
- Blackthorn
- Braddock
- Magners (Bulmers Original Irish Cider in the Irish Republic)
- Cassels
- Crones
- Frosty Jack Cider
- Okanagan
- Olde English
- Pilchard
- Scrumpy Jack
- Strongbow
- Symonds
- [http://www.tasteeapple.com/ Tastee] American Apple Processor in Newcomerstown, Ohio
- Thatcher's
- [http://www.treetop.com/ Tree Top] American Apple Processor in Selah, Washington
- Westons
- Wikins
- Woodchuck
- Woodpecker

Cider by country

Australia

In Australia, 'cider' can be either an alcoholic drink as described above, or a sparkling non-alcoholic beverage made from apples. The most popular brands of alcoholic cider in Australia are Strongbow, and Mercury Cider made at the Cascade Brewery in Hobart, Tasmania. Cascade's 'Apple Isle' Sparkling Apple Juice is the most popular selling brand of non-alcoholic cider in Australia. Alcoholic cider is sold in bottleshops, while the non-alcoholic version is stocked in the soft-drink aisles of supermarkets.

Canada

In Quebec, cider is considered a traditional alcoholic beverage. In recent years, a unique variety has emerged on the market: the ice ciders. This type of cider is made from apples with a particularly high level of sugar caused by natural frost. In Ontario, apple cider or apple hooch is often home-made. Apples are de-cored, juiced, and boiled. Sugar is dissolved into the apple/water mixture. Brewers yeast is added and the cider is fermented for up to two weeks, or three before bottling, and then aged to taste.

East Asia

Cider in Japan and Korea sometimes means just a soft drink, not necessarily made from apples.

France

French cidre is an alcoholic drink produced predominantly in Normandy and Brittany. It varies in strength from below 4% alcohol to considerably more. Cidre Doux is usually any cider up to 3% in strength. 'Demi-Sec' is from 3 to 5% and Cidre Brut is a strong cider of 5% alcohol and above. Most are usually sparkling. Higher quality cider is sold in Champagne-style bottles (cidre bouché), and while much of cidre is sold in corked bottles, some screw-tops bottles exist. Until the mid-20th century, cidre was the second most-consumed drink in France (after wine) but an increase in the popularity of beer displaced cider's market share outside traditional cider-producing regions. In restaurants in Brittany, cider is sometimes served in traditional ceramic bowls (or wide cups) rather than glasses. A kir normand is a cocktail aperitif made with cider and cassis, rather than white wine and cassis for the traditional kir. Cider is still made in the Channel Islands, but there is a great deal less now than there was in the past. In Jersey, the only locally produced cider currently sold in shops is a strong (above 7%) variety.

Germany

Main article: Apfelwein German cidre, usually called Apfelwein (apple wine), and regionally known as Apfelmost (apple must), Viez (from Latin vice, the second or substitute wine), or Saurer Most (sour must), has an alcohol content of 5.5% - 7 % and a tart, sour taste. German cidre is mainly produced and consumed in Hessen, particularly in the Frankfurt, Wetterau and Odenwald areas, in Moselfranken, Merzig (Saarland) and the Trier area, as well as the lower Saar area and the region bordering on Luxembourg. In these regions, there are several large producers, as well as numerous small, private producers often using traditional recipes. In some of these regions, there are regular cidre competitions and fairs, in which the small, private producers participate. Cidre songs are composed and sung at these events. The Merzig region crowns a Viez Queen, and the lower Saar area a Viez King. An official Viez route, (Rue de Cidre) connects Saarburg with the border to Luxembourg.

Ireland

Cider is a popular drink in Ireland; for a long time cider production was officially encouraged and supported by a preferential tax treatment. A single cider, Bulmers, dominates sales in Ireland: owned by C&C, Bulmers cider is a different cider to Bulmers in England where C&C do not own the brand, in the United Kingdom C&C brand their cider as Magners.

Luxembourg

In Luxembourg, viez (pronounced feetz) is rather like English scrumpy. It is cloudy and varies from nonalcoholic to very alcoholic. It is made only in autumn. It is sold by the side of the road in reused plastic bottles and should be drunk within a few days of purchase. The quality can be extremely good.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, cider is fermented apple juice. The most popular brand is Scrumpy.

Spain

The Spanish regions of Asturias and the Basque Country are well known for traditional sidra, an alcoholic cider of 4 to 8% strength. Sidra or Sagardoa (Euskadi) is traditionally poured in very small quantities from a height into a wide glass, with the arm holding the bottle extended upwards and the one holding the glass extended downwards. This is called to escanciar (or, in asturian, echar) and is done to get air bubbles into the drink, thus giving it a sparkling taste like Champagne that lasts a very short time. Spanish sidra is closely associated with sidrerías or sagardotegiak (euskadi) ("cider houses"). In the Basque region of Guipúzcoa, it is a tradition to visit sagardotegiak between February and May to drink new sidra from the barrel accompanied by a meal (like the well known "txuleton"). Txotx!

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom cider is predominantly (but by no means exclusively) made in the southwest and west of England and is known as scrumpy in the West Country. Cider from Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire in England made from traditional recipes forms a European Union Protected Geographical Indication. Cider is often the drink of choice for teenagers in the UK (along with alcopops; see also Snakebite). This is aided by preferentially low duty rates for cider compared to beer, which reduces its cost. Abdominal pains known as "Devon colic" have been attributed to mild lead poisoning; the acidic juice dissolves lead from the traditional cider presses used in that region. Local West Country legends tell of cider served at concerts for the Somerset band The Wurzels, often being described as 'proper' scrumpy. Many locals insist the reputed 'bits' in such scrumpy enhanced the flavour, and sometimes the strength of the alcoholic content. West Country cider is parodied by Terry Pratchett in his descriptions of the Discworld beverage scumble.

Related drinks

Applejack is a strong alcoholic beverage made in North America by concentrating cider, either by the traditional method of "freeze distillation", or by true evaporative distillation. In traditional freeze distillation, a barrel of cider is left outside during the winter. When the temperature is low enough, the water in the cider starts to freeze. If the ice is removed, the (now more concentrated) alcoholic solution is left behind in the barrel. If the process is repeated often enough, and the temperature is low enough, the alcohol concentration is raised to 30-40% alcohol. In freeze distillation, hazardous concentrations of methanol and fusel oil may develop. These toxins can be separated when regular, heat distillation is performed. Home production of applejack is illegal in most countries. Cocktails may include cider. Besides kir and snakebite, an example is Black velvet in a version of which cider may replace champagne. Other alcoholic beverages are also made from apples, such as apple wine and the distilled spirits apple brandy and calvados. A popular aperitif in Normandy is pommeau—a drink produced by blending unfermented cider and apple brandy in the barrel (the high alcoholic content of the spirit stops the fermentation process of the cider and the blend takes on the character of the aged barrel). Other fruits can be used to make cider-like drinks. The most popular is perry, known in France as poiré and produced mostly in Normandy, which is made from fermented pear-juice. A branded sweet perry known as Babycham, marketed principally as a women's drink and sold in miniature Champagne-style bottles, was once popular but has now become unfashionable. Fermented peach juice can be made into "peachy". Another related related drink is cyser (cider fermented with honey). A few producers in Quebec have developed cidre de glace (literally "ice cider", sometimes called "apple ice wine"), inspired from ice wines, where the apples are naturally frozen either before or after harvest. The alcohol concentration of cidre de glace is 9-13%.

Cider production

Scratting and pressing

ice wines After the apples are gathered from the trees, they are "scratted" (ground) into what is called pomace or pommage, either by means of a common pressing stone with a circular trough, or by a cider mill, traditionally driven by the hand, water-mill, or horse-power, but these days likely to be electric. When the pulp is thus reduced to a great degree of fineness, it is conveyed to the cider press, where it is formed by pressure into a kind of cake, which is called the cheese. This is effected by placing clear, sweet straw or hair cloths between the layers of pomace, usually alternating with slatted ash-wood racks, until there is a pile of 10 or 12 layers. It is important to minimise the time that the pomace is exposed to air, to reduce oxidation — and, at the same time, the cheese must be constructed evenly, or the whole pile slithers onto the floor. This pile is then subjected to different degrees of pressure in succession, until all the must or juice is squeezed from the pomace. This juice, after being strained in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put into either open vats or closed casks, and the pressed pulp is either given to farm animals as winter feed (or thrown away) or used to make liqueurs.

Fermentation

Fermentation is best effected at a temperature of 4-16 °C (40-60°F). This is low for most kinds of fermentation, but works for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Shortly before the fermentation consumes all the sugar, the liquor is "racked" into new vats. This leaves dead yeast cells and other undesirable material at the bottom of the old vat. At this point it becomes important to exclude airborne acetic bacteria, so care is taken to fill the vat completely, and the fermenting of the remaining available sugar generates a small amount of carbon dioxide that helps to prevent air seeping in. This also creates a certain amount of sparkle, and sometimes extra sugar is added at this stage for this purpose and also to raise the alcohol level. Racking is sometimes repeated if the liquor remains cloudy. The cider is ready to drink at this point, though more often it is matured in the vats for up to two or three years.

Blending and bottling

For larger-scale cider production, ciders from vats produced from different varieties of apple may be blended to accord with market taste. If the cider is to be bottled, usually some extra sugar is added for sparkle. Higher quality ciders can be made using the champagne method, but this is expensive in time and money and requires special corks, bottles, and other equipment.

External links

- [http://www.cidermuseum.co.uk/ The Hereford Cider Museum]
- [http://www.middlefarm.com/cidershop.html The National Collection of Cider and Perry], East Sussex, England
- [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_048.html The Straight Dope: What's the difference between apple juice and apple cider?]
- [http://www.iespana.es/valdedios]
- [http://www.ratebeer.com Review ciders at RateBeer,com]
- [http://www.camra.org.uk/SHWebClass.asp?WCI=ShowCat&CatId=9 CAMRA Cider & Perry Division]
- [http://ukcider.co.uk/wiki/index.php/Main_Page UKCider Wiki]

References

- Household Cyclopedia, 1881
- Farmhouse Cider & Scrumpy, Bob Bunker 1999
- Category:English Protected designation of origin ja:シードル

Otto von Bismarck

:Alternative meanings: See Bismarck (disambiguation). Count Otto von Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg (April 1, 1815 – July 30, 1898) was one of the most prominent European aristocrats and statesmen of the nineteenth century. As Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862 to 1890, he engineered the unification of the numerous states of Germany. From 1867 on, he additionally was Chancellor of the North German Confederation. The latter was enlarged in 1871 to the German Empire, as the first Chancellor of which Bismarck served until 1890. He is nicknamed the Iron Chancellor. He was Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen (Count Bismarck-Schönhausen) in 1865, then since 1871 Fürst von Bismarck (Prince Bismarck) and since 1890 the Herzog von Lauenburg (Duke of Lauenburg). The ducal title, which he received upon his dismissal from office, he refused initially only to later accept. A Junker, Bismarck held deep conservative, monarchist and aristocratic views. His most significant policy objective was that of turning Prussia into the most powerful state within the German Confederation. He took advantage of his great skills in the field of diplomacy and led two wars to achieve this goal. After that, Bismarck broke France's supremacy over continental Europe in the Franco-German war of 1870. It was only with reluctance that he accepted the idea of uniting Germany, but when his master, King Wilhelm I of Prussia, became German emperor, Bismarck loyally took the Imperial Chancellor's office. From there, Bismarck built Germany's external security upon the international isolation of France and upon a vast and complex system of alliances for mutual military support with most of Europe's nations. In the role of an 'honest broker', Bismarck was also successful in maintaining peace and stability in Europe by settling arising political conflicts through negotiations. Essentially a careful politician, Bismarck never pursued an imperialistic course. In the area of domestic policies, Bismarck was less successful. In the Kulturkampf, he wrested some important cultural powers away from the Protestant and Catholic Church, but the rude methods he used confirmed the fame which Bismarck had gained in the 1860s. Bismarck's Sozialistengesetze failed to suppress the labour movements but made him appear as a reactionary, a reputation he could not improve by the new and generous social reform and welfare legislation he enacted. Emperor Wilhelm I died in 1888 and his successor, Emperor Friedrich, also passed away the same year. The crown finally went to 29-year old Emperor Wilhelm II who disliked Bismarck personally and forced him to resign all his political offices in 1890. Personally, Bismarck was a brilliant entertainer who greatly appreciated funny stories and wordplay. He was fluent in several foreign languages, and a perfect diplomat of excellent manners and politeness. His friends were chosen independently of origin, creed, or political beliefs, with the exclusion of socialists and social democrats which he despised. Bismarck loved good food and drink and had a tendency to use both excessively. His most important tool in politics was his talent to successfully plan complex international developments.

Biography

Early life

Wilhelm II Bismarck was born at Schönhausen, his family's estate in the Prussian Province of Saxony (now Saxony-Anhalt). Bismarck's family had belonged to the nobility since the fourteenth century; from his birth, he held the title Graf (Count). His father, Ferdinand von Bismarck, was a landowner and a former Prussian military officer; his mother, Wilhelmine Mencken, originally belonged to a well-off commoner family. Otto von Bismarck had several siblings, but only an elder brother (Bernhard) and a younger sister (Malvina) survived into adulthood. Otto von Bismarck was educated at the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium and the Grauen Kloster Gymnasium. Thereafter, at the age of seventeen, he joined the Georg August University of Göttingen, where he spent only a year as a member of the Corps Hannovera before enroling in the Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin. Desirous of joining the civil service, he studied law; despite devoting little time to study, he passed his examinations in 1835. Although he hoped to become a diplomat, he could only obtain minor administrative positions in Aachen and Potsdam. As his work proved monotonous and uninteresting, he soon resigned as a civil servant. Upon his mother's demise in 1839, Bismarck took over the management of his family's estates in Pomerania. About eight years later, he returned to Schönhausen, where he became engaged in local politics. He married the noblewoman Johanna von Puttkamer in 1848. Like Puttkamer, he became a Pietist Lutheran. Their long and happy marriage produced one daughter (Marie) and two sons (Herbert and Wilhelm), all of whom survived into adulthood.

Early political career

In the year of his marriage, Bismarck was chosen as a representative to the newly created Prussian legislature, the Vereinigter Landtag. There, he gained a reputation as a royalist and reactionary politician; he openly advocated the idea that the monarch had a divine right to rule. In March of the next year, Prussia faced a revolution (one of the Revolutions of 1848 which shook many European nations), which completely overwhelmed King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The monarch, though initially inclined to use armed forces to suppress the rebellion, ultimately succumbed to the revolutionary movement. He offered numerous concessions to the liberals: he promised to promulgate a constitution, agreed that Prussia and other German states should merge into a single nation, and appointed a liberal, Ludolf Camphausen, as Minister-President. The liberal victory, however, was short-lived; it perished by the end of the year 1848. The movement became weak due to fighting between internal factions, whilst the conservatives regrouped, gained the support of the King, and retook control of Berlin. Although a constitution was still granted, its provisions fell far short of the demands of the revolutionaries. In 1849, Bismarck was elected to the Landtag, the lower house of the new Prussian legislature. At this stage in his career, he opposed the unification of Germany, arguing that Prussia would lose its independence in the process. He accepted his appointment as one of Prussia's representatives at the Erfurt Parliament, an assembly of German states that met to discuss plans for union, but only in order to oppose that body's proposals more effectively. The Parliament, in any event, failed to bring about unification, for it lacked the support of the two most important German states, Prussia and Austria. In 1852, Friedrich Wilhelm appointed Bismarck as Prussia's envoy to the diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt. His eight years in Frankfurt were marked by changes in his political opinions. No longer under the influence of his ultraconservative Prussian friends, Bismarck became less reactionary and more moderate. He became convinced that Prussia would have to ally itself with other German states in order to countervail Austria's growing influence. Thus, he grew more accepting of the notion of a united German nation. In 1858, Friedrich Wilhelm IV suffered a stroke that left him paralysed and mentally disabled. His brother, Wilhelm, took over the government of the realm as Regent. Shortly thereafter, Bismarck was replaced as the Prussian envoy in Frankfurt; he was instead made Prussia's ambassador to Russia. He stayed in St. Petersburg for four years, during which time he befriended his future adversary, the Russian Prince Gorchakov. In June 1862, he was sent to Paris, so that he could serve as the Prussian ambassador to France. Despite his lengthy stay abroad, Bismarck was not entirely detached from German domestic affairs; he remained well-informed due to his friendship with Albrecht von Roon, the Minister of War.

Ministerpräsident of Prussia

The Regent became King Wilhelm I upon his brother's death in 1861. The new monarch was often in conflict with the increasingly liberal Prussian Diet. A crisis arose in 1862, when the Diet refused to authorise funding for a proposed re-organisation of the army. The King's ministers were unable to convince legislators to pass the budget, and the King was unwilling to capitulate, so the deadlock continued. Wilhelm believed that Bismarck was the only politician capable of handling the crisis, but was ambivalent about appointing a man who demanded unfettered control over foreign affairs. When, in September 1862, the Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies) overwhelmingly rejected the proposed budget, Wilhelm was forced to recall Bismarck to Prussia. On 23 September 1862, Wilhelm appointed Bismarck Minister-President and Foreign Minister. Bismarck had little respect for parliamentary democracy. He was intent on maintaining royal supremacy by ending the budget deadlock in the King's favour, even if he had to use extralegal means to do so. He contended that, since the Constitution did not provide for cases in which legislators failed to approve a budget, he could merely apply the previous year's budget. Thus, on the basis of the budget of 1861, tax collection continued for four years. Bismarck's conflict with the legislators grew more heated during the following years. In 1863, the House of Deputies passed a resolution declaring that it could no longer come to terms with Bismarck; in response, the King dissolved the Diet, accusing it of trying to obtain unconstitutional control over the ministry. Bismarck then issued an edict restricting the freedom of the press; this policy even gained the public opposition of the Crown Prince, Friedrich Wilhelm (the future King Friedrich III). Despite attempts to silence critics, Bismarck remained a largely unpopular politician. His supporters fared poorly in the elections of October 1863, in which a liberal coalition (whose primary member was the Progressive Party, or Fortschrittspartei) won over two-thirds of the seats in the House of Deputies. Notwithstanding unpopularity and numerous conflicts with the Diet, Bismarck retained power because he had the support of the King. Wilhelm I feared that if he dismissed Bismarck, a liberal ministry would follow; thus, he did not dismiss the Minister-President, despite the repeated calls of the House of Deputies.

The Defeat of Denmark and Austria

Before unification, Germany consisted of a multitude of principalities loosely bound together as members of the German Confederation. Bismarck played a crucial role in uniting most of the Confederation's members into a single country. In his first speech as Minister-President, he had referred to the issue of German unfication in a now famous remark: "the great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and the resolutions of majorities — that was the great mistake from 1848 to 1849 — but by iron and blood." Bismarck used both diplomacy and the Prussian military in order to achieve the objective of German unification. He excluded Austria from unified Germany, for he sought to make Prussia the most powerful and dominant component of the nation. Bismarck faced a diplomatic crisis when King Frederick VII of Denmark died in November 1863. Succession to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was disputed; they were claimed by Christian IX (Frederick VII's heir as King) and by Frederick von Augustenburg (a German duke). Prussian public opinion strongly favoured Augustenburg's claim; however, Bismarck took an unpopular step by insisting that the territories legally belonged to the Danish monarch under the London Protocols signed a decade earlier. Nonetheless, Bismarck did denounce Christian's decision to annex the duchy of Schleswig to the Denmark proper. With support from Austria, he issued an ultimatum for Christian IX to return Schleswig to its former status; when the Danes refused, Austria and Prussia invaded, commencing the Second War of Schleswig. As a result of the German victory, Denmark was forced to cede both duchies. Originally, it was proposed that the Diet of the German Confederation (in which all the states of Germany were represented) determine the fate of the duchies; however, before this scheme could be effected, Bismarck induced Austria to agree to the Gastein Convention. Under this agreement, Prussia received Schleswig, while Holstein went to the Austrians. In 1866, Austria reneged on its prior agreement with Prussia by demanding that the Diet of the German Confederation determine the Schleswig-Holstein issue. Bismarck used Austria's demand as an excuse; charging that the Austrians had violated the Convention of Gastein, he sent Prussian troops to occupy Holstein. Provoked, Austria called for the aid of other German states, who quickly became involved in the Austro-Prussian War. Prussia quickly defeated Austria and its allies, deciding the conflict with a crushing victory at the Battle of Königgrätz. As a result of the Treaty of Prague, the German Confederation was dissolved; Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Nassau; and Austria promised not to intervene in German affairs. To solidify Prussian hegemony, Prussia and several other North German states joined the North German Confederation in 1867; King Wilhelm I served as its President, and Bismarck as its Chancellor. Military success brought Bismarck tremendous political support in Prussia. In the elections to the House of Deputies held in 1866, the liberals suffered a major defeat, losing their large majority. The new, largely conservative House was on much better terms with Bismarck than previous bodies; at the Minister-President's request, it retroactively approved the budgets of the past four years, which had been implemented without parliamentary consent. Hence, Bismarck is considered one of the most talented statesmen in history.

The Establishment of the German Empire

Prussia's victory over Austria increased tensions with France. The French Emperor, Napoleon III, feared that a powerful Prussia would upset the balance of power in Europe. Bismarck, at the same time, sought war with France; he believed that if the German states perceived France as the aggressor, they would unite behind the King of Prussia. A suitable premise for war arose in 1870, when the German Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Spanish throne, which had been vacant since a revolution in 1868. The French not only blocked the candidacy, but also demanded assurances that no member of the House of Hohenzollern become King of Spain. Bismarck then published the inflammatory Ems Dispatch, an altered version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and the French ambassador. The publication was intended to provoke France into declaring war on Prussia. Ems Dispatch in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, France.]] The Ems Dispatch had the desired effect. France declared war, but was seen as the aggressor; as a result, German states, swept up by nationalism and patriotic zeal, rallied to Prussia's side. The Franco-Prussian War (1870) was a great success for Prussia; the enemy was utterly crushed. France was forced to pay a large indemnity; moreover, it surrendered the territory of Alsace-Lorraine. Bismarck decided to act immediately to secure the unification of Germany. He opened negotiations with representatives of southern German states, offering special concessions if they were to acquiesce to unification. The negotiations were successful; King Wilhelm was crowned "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Château de Versailles (thereby further humiliating France). The new German Empire was a federal one: each of its twenty-five constituent states (kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, and free cities) retained its autonomy. The King of Prussia, as Emperor, was not sovereign over the entirety of Germany; he was only primus inter pares, or first amongst equals.

Chancellor of the German Empire

federal.]] Otto von Bismarck, until 1871 a Graf (Count), was raised to the rank of Fürst (Prince). He was also appointed Chancellor of the German Empire, but retained his Prussian offices (including those of Minister-President and Foreign Minister); thus, he held almost complete control of both domestic and foreign policy. The office of Minister-President of Prussia was temporarily separated from that of Chancellor in 1873, when Albrecht von Roon was appointed to the former office. By the end of the year, however, Roon resigned due to ill health, and Bismarck once again became Minister-President. In the following years, one of Bismarck's primary political objectives was the reduction of the influence of Roman Catholics in Germany. Prussia and most other northern German states were predominantly Protestant; however, many Catholics lived in the southern German states (especially Bavaria). Bismarck believed that the Roman Catholic Church held too much political power; moreover, he was concerned about the emergence of the Catholic Centre Party (organised in 1870). Accordingly, he began an anti-Catholic campaign known as the Kulturkampf. In 1871, the Catholic Department of the Prussian Ministry of Culture was abolished, and in 1872, the Jesuits were expelled from Germany. More severe laws passed in 1873 allowed the government to supervise the education of the clergy, and curtailed the disciplinary powers of the Church. In 1875, civil ceremonies were required for weddings, which could hitherto be performed in churches. These efforts, however, only strengthened the Catholic Centre Party. Largely unsuccessful, Bismarck abandoned the Kulturkampf in 1878. The Kulturkampf won Bismarck a new supporter in the secular National Liberal Party. The National Liberals were Bismarck's chief allies in the Reichstag until the end of the Kulturkampf. In 1879, however, a dispute over protectionism ended the close ties. Germany, and much of the rest of Europe, had endured the Long Depression since the crash of the Vienna Stock Exchange in 1873. To aid faltering industries, the Chancellor decided to abandon free trade and establish protectionist tariffs; by doing so, however, he alienated the National Liberals. The party, however, could not continue to hold power; it had suffered drastic losses in the 1877 elections, and was hopelessly divided between moderate and liberal wings. Bismarck, on the other hand, returned to conservative factions — including the Centre Party — for support. German minorities such as Danish, Frenchmen and Poles were discriminated against in the same way, labelled as Enemies of the Empire. This attitude led to severe measures against Polish people under Kulturkampf. Bismarck was worried about the growth of the socialist movement — in particular, that of the Social Democratic Party. In 1878, he instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures. Socialist organizations and meetings were forbidden, as was the circulation of socialist literature. Moreover, socialist leaders were arrested and tried by police courts. Despite these efforts, the movement continued to gain supporters. Although socialist organisations were forbidden, socialists could still gain seats in the Reichstag; under the German Constitution, candidates could run independently, unaffiliated with any party. The strength of the socialists in the Reichstag continued to grow steadily despite Bismarck's measures. The Chancellor, then, adopted a different approach to tackling socialism. In order to appease the working class — and thereby reduce socialism's appeal to the public — he enacted a variety of paternalistic social reforms. The year 1883 saw the passage of the Health Insurance Act, which entitled workers to health insurance; the worker paid two-thirds, and the employer one-third, of the premiums. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, whilst old age pensions and disability insurance were established in 1889. Other laws restricted the employment of women and children. These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government.

Foreign Policies

In foreign affairs, he devoted himself to keeping peace in Europe, so that the strength of the German Empire would not be threatened. He was, however, forced to contend with French revanchism — the desire to avenge the loss in the Franco-Prussian War. Bismarck adopted a policy of diplomatically isolating France, whilst maintaining cordial relations with other nations in Europe. In order to avoid alienating the United Kingdom, he declined to seek a colonial empire or an expansion of the navy. In 1872, he extended the hand of friendship to Austria and Russia, whose rulers joined Wilhelm I in the League of the Three Emperors. Bismarck also maintained good relations with Italy. After Russia's victory over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, Bismarck helped negotiate a settlement at the Congress of Berlin (1878). Russia had previously secured great advantages in southeastern Europe when it made peace by ratifying the Treaty of San Stefano. Bismarck and other European leaders, however, opposed the growth of Russian influence, and sought to protect the power of the Ottoman Empire (see Eastern Question). The Treaty of Berlin revised the Treaty of San Stefano, reducing the concessions offered to Russia. As a result, Russo-German relations suffered; the Russian Prince Gorchakov denounced Bismarck for compromising his nation's victory. The relationship between Russia and Germany was further weakened by the latter's protectionist policies. The League of the Three Emperors having fallen apart, Bismarck negotiated the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. The Dual Alliance became the Triple Alliance in 1882 with the addition of Italy. Attempts to reconcile Germany and Russia failed to have any lasting effect: the Three Emperors' League was re-established in 1881, but quickly fell apart, and the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 was allowed to expire in 1890. At first, Bismarck opposed the idea of seeking colonies, arguing that the burden of obtaining and defending them would outweigh the potential benefits. During the late 1870s, however, public opinion shifted to favour the idea of a colonial empire. In this regard, Germans were not unique; other European nations also began to acquire colonies rapidly (see New Imperialism). During the early 1880s, Germany joined other European powers in the Scramble for Africa. Among Germany's colonies were Togoland (now part of Ghana and Togo), Cameroon, German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania), and German South-West Africa (now Namibia). The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) established regulations for the acquisition of African colonies; in particular, it protected free trade in certain parts of the Congo basin.

Last years

Congo basin)]] The German Emperor, Wilhelm I, died in 1888, leaving the throne to his son, Friedrich III. The new monarch, however, was already suffering from an incurable cancer and spent all three months of his reign in a coma before dying. He was replaced by his son, Wilhelm II. The new Emperor opposed Bismarck's careful foreign policy, preferring vigorous and rapid expansion to protect Germany's "place in the sun." The rift was further widened by their differing views on domestic policy; Bismarck wanted anti-socialist policies to remain in place, whilst the Emperor thought that he could win popularity by refusing to renew them. Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II's insistence in 1890, to be succeeded as Chancellor of Germany and Minister-President of Prussia by Leo von Caprivi. Upon leaving office, he was created Herzog (Duke) von Lauenburg; the dukedom, however, was not hereditary. Bismarck spent his final years gathering his memoirs (Gedanken und Erinnerungen, or Thoughts and Memories). He died in 1898 (at the age of eighty-three) in Friedrichsruh, where he is entombed in the Bismarck-Mausoleum. He was succeeded as Fürst von Bismarck-Schönhausen by his eldest son Herbert.

Legacy

Bismarck's most important legacy involves the unification of Germany. Germany had existed as a collection of separate principalities since the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806; through Bismarck's efforts, the various kingdoms were once again united in a single empire. Following unification, Germany became one of the most powerful nations in Europe. Bismarck's cautious, pragmatic, and unthreatening foreign policies allowed Germany to retain peacefully the powerful position into which he had brought it; maintaining amiable diplomacy with almost all European nations. France, the main exception, was devastated by Bismarck's wars and his harsh subsequent policies towards it; France became one of Germany's most bitter enemies in Europe. Austria, too, was weakened by the creation of a German Empire, though to a much lesser extent than France. Bismarck's diplomatic feats were subsequently entirely undone, however, by Kaiser Wilhelm II, whose arrogant policies succeeded in not only offending and alienating, but actually unifying other European powers against Germany in time for World War I. During most of his nearly t

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