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De Gasperi

De Gasperi

Alcide De Gasperi (born 3 April 1881 in Pieve Tesino in the Tirol, Austria-Hungary, now part of the Province of Trento in Italy); died 19 August 1954 in Sella di Valsugana in the same province) was an Italian statesman and politician. He is considered to be one of the Founding Fathers of the European communities, along with the Frenchman Robert Schuman and the German Konrad Adenauer. De Gasperi studied philosophy and literature in Vienna, and afterwards he became a journalist. In 1911 he became a Member of Parliament in the Austrian Reichsrat. Moving to Italy after the First World War, in 1919 he was one the founders, with Don Luigi Sturzo, of the Italian Popular Party, or Partito Popolare; starting in 1921 he was an MP for the party. He later became party leader and Secretary-General. De Gasperi served a 16-month jail sentence as an anti-fascist. After his release in 1931 he worked in the library of the Vatican; there, in 1943 during the Second World War, he organized the establishment of the first (and at the time, illegal) Christian Democracy party, or Democrazia Cristiana, drawing upon the ideology of the Popular Party. From 1945 to 1953 he was the prime minister of eight successive Christian Democratic governments. His eight-years of rule remain a landmark of political longevity for one leader in modern Italian politics. In 1952 he received the Karlspreis (engl.: International Charlemagne Prize of the City of Aachen), an Award by the German city of Aachen to people who contributed to the European idea and European peace. Aachen De Gasperi is buried in the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, a basilica in Rome.

3 April

April 3 is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 272 days remaining.

Events

- 33 - Crucifixion of Jesus (traditional date)
- 1077 - Creation of the first Parliament of Friuli
- 1559 - The treaty, Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, is signed, ending the Italian Wars.
- 1860 - The first successful Pony Express run from Saint Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California begins, and is completed on April 13).
- 1865 - American Civil War: Union forces capture Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the break-away Confederate States of America.
- 1882 - American Old West outlaw Jesse James is shot in the back and killed in Saint Joseph, Missouri by Robert Ford for a $5,000 reward.
- 1885 - Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for his engine design.
- 1895 - The libel trial instigated by Oscar Wilde against the Marquess of Queensbury begins, eventually resulting in Wilde's arrest, trial and imprisonment on charges of homosexuality.
- 1896 - first publication of La Gazzetta dello Sport newspaper in Italy.
- 1917 - Vladimir Lenin arrives at Petrograd Station in Russia from exile, marking the begining of Bolshevik leadership in the Russian Revolution.
- 1922 - Joseph Stalin succeeds Vladimir Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union.
- 1936 - Richard Bruno Hauptmann is executed for the kidnapping and death of Charles Augustus Lindbergh III, the baby son of Anne and world-famous pilot Charles Lindbergh.
- 1941 - Hungarian and German troops march into Yugoslavia.
- 1942 - World War II: Japanese forces begin an all-out assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula. Bataan falls on April 9 and the Bataan Death March began.
- 1946 - Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed outside Manila in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March.
- 1948 - President Harry Truman signs the Marshall Plan which authorizes $5 billion in aid for 16 countries.
- 1948 - On Jeju, locals simultaneously raid the island's police stations, marking the start of a civil-war-like period of violence and human rights abuses known as the Jeju massacre.
- 1953 - TV Guide debuts.
- 1955 - The American Civil Liberties Union announces it will defend Allen Ginsberg's book Howl against obscenity charges.
- 1956 - Elvis Presley sings "Heartbreak Hotel" on the Milton Berle Show, with an estimated 25% of the United States population viewing.
- 1968 - Simon and Garfunkel release the critically acclaimed album Bookends.
- 1968 - Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "mountaintop" speech.
- 1969 - Vietnam War: Vietnamization - U.S. Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announces that the United States will start to "Vietnamize" the war effort.
- 1971 - In Dublin, Ireland, Séverine wins the sixteenth Eurovision Song Contest for Monaco singing "Un banc, un arbre, une rue" (A bench, a tree, a street).
- 1972 - The first ever Mobile phone call is placed by Martin Cooper, in New York City
- 1974 - The Super Outbreak occurs, with 148 tornadoes affecting 13 states and 1 Canadian province in 18 hours, the biggest tornado outbreak in recorded history. The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured.
- 1974 - An F4 class hurricane rips through Monticello, Indiana, killing 8 and causing $100 million in damage. Most of the damage was centered in the downtown area. Some time later, the cornerstone of the city hall is found in rural Maine.
- 1975 - Bobby Fischer refuses to play in a chess match against Anatoly Karpov, giving Karpov the title.
- 1976 - In The Hague, Netherlands, Brotherhood of Man wins the twenty-first Eurovision Song Contest for the United Kingdom singing "Save Your Kisses For Me".
- 1986 - IBM unveils the PC Convertible, their first laptop computer.
- 1996 - Suspected "Unabomber" Theodore Kaczynski is arrested at his Montana cabin.
- 1996 - An Air Force 737 carrying United States Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown crashes in Croatia, killing all 35 on-board, including Brown.
- 1997 - Thalit massacre begins in Algeria; all but 1 of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas.
- 2000 - United States v. Microsoft: Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust laws by keeping "an oppressive thumb" on its competitors.
- 2004 - Islamist terrorists involved in the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks are trapped by the police in their apartment and kill themselves with explosives.

Births

- 1151 - Igor Svyatoslavich, Russian prince (d. 1202)
- 1245 - King Philip III of France (d. 1285)
- 1367 - King Henry IV of England (d. 1413)
- 1529 - Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1581)
- 1593 - George Herbert, English poet and orator (d. 1633)
- 1643 - Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine, general of the Holy Roman Empire (d. 1690)
- 1683 - Mark Catesby, English naturalist (d. 1749)
- 1693 - George Edwards, English naturalist (d. 1773)
- 1715 - John Hanson, American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. 1783)
- 1715 - William Watson, English physician and scientist (d. 1787)
- 1764 - John Abernathy, English surgeon (d. 1831)
- 1769 - Christian Gunther von Bernstorff, Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomat (d. 1835)
- 1783 - Washington Irving, American author (d. 1859)
- 1814 - Lorenzo Snow, 5th president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1901)
- 1822 - Edward Everett Hale, American writer, (d. 1909)
- 1823 - William Marcy Tweed, American political boss (d. 1878)
- 1880 - Otto Weininger, Austrian philosopher (d. 1903)
- 1881 - Alcide De Gasperi, Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1954)
- 1885 - Allan Dwan, Canadian-born American film director (d. 1981)
- 1889 - Grigoraş Dinicu, Romanian composer and violinist (d. 1949)
- 1893 - Leslie Howard, English actor (d. 1943)
- 1895 - Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian composer (d. 1968)
- 1898 - George Jessel, American comedian (d. 1981)
- 1898 - Henry Luce, American publisher (d. 1967)
- 1904 - Iron Eyes Cody, American actor (d. 1999)
- 1913 - Per Borten, Premier of Norway (d. 2005)
- 1916 - Herb Caen, American newspaper columnist (d. 1997)
- 1921 - Jan Sterling, American actress (d. 2004)
- 1924 - Marlon Brando, American actor (d. 2004)
- 1924 - Doris Day, American actress
- 1925 - Tony Benn, British politician
- 1926 - Gus Grissom, astronaut (d. 1967)
- 1928 - Don Gibson, American country musician (d. 2003)
- 1928 - Kevin Hagen, American actor (d. 2005)
- 1929 - Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese actress
- 1930 - Lawton Chiles, U.S. Senator from Florida and Governor of Florida (d. 1998)
- 1930 - Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of Germany
- 1934 - Jane Goodall, English zoologist
- 1941 - Eric Braeden, German-born actor
- 1941 - Philippe Wynne, American musician (d. 1984)
- 1941 - Jan Berry, American musician (Jan and Dean) (d. 2004)
- 1942 - Marek Perepeczko, Polish actor (d. 2005)
- 1942 - Marsha Mason, American actress
- 1942 - Wayne Newton, American singer
- 1942 - Billy Joe Royal, American singer
- 1943 - Jonathan Lynn, British actor and comedy writer
- 1943 - Richard Manuel, Canadian musician and songwriter (d. 1986)
- 1944 - Tony Orlando, American musician
- 1948 - Carlos Salinas, President of Mexico
- 1949 - Richard Thompson, British musician and songwriter
- 1949 - Lyle Alzado, American football player
- 1954 - Elisabetta Brusa, Italian composer
- 1956 - Ray Combs, American game show host and comedian (d. 1996)
- 1958 - Alec Baldwin, American actor
- 1959 - David Hyde Pierce, American actor
- 1961 - Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
- 1962 - Mike Ness, American musician (Social Distortion)
- 1964 - Bjarne Riis, Danish cyclist
- 1968 - Sebastian Bach, Canadian musician (Skid Row)
- 1968 - Charlotte Coleman, British actress (d. 2001)
- 1972 - Jennie Garth, American actress
- 1975 - Michael Olowokandi, Nigerian basketball player
- 1976 - Drew Shirley, American musician (Switchfoot)
- 1978 - G. M. Palmer, American poet and editor
- 1979 - Daniel Lane, British music journalist (Kerrang!)
- 1979 - Luke Martin, British musician (Big Hand)
- 1986 - Amanda Bynes, American actress and show host
- 1987 - Paul Munro, British Chief Customer Services Administrator
- 1993 - Dakoda Dowd, American golfer

Deaths

- 33 - Jesus (b. 0 / Christians believe he rose from the dead three days later)
- 963 - William III, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 915)
- 1287 - Pope Honorius IV
- 1350 - Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1295)
- 1606 - Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon, English politician (b. 1563)
- 1680 - Shivaji, founder of the Maratha Empire (b. 1630)
- 1682 - Bartolomé Estéban Murillo, Spanish painter (b. 1618)
- 1691 - Jean Petitot, Swiss enamel painter (b. 1608)
- 1695 - Melchior d'Hondecoeter, Dutch painter
- 1717 - Jacques Ozanam, French mathematician (b. 1640)
- 1728 - James Anderson, Scottish lawyer (b. 1662)
- 1792 - George Pocock, British admiral (b. 1706)
- 1792 - John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English statesman (b. 1718)
- 1827 - Ernst Chladni, German physicist (b. 1856)
- 1849 - Juliusz Słowacki, Polish poet (b. 1809)
- 1868 - Franz Berwald, Swedish composer and inventor (b. 1796)
- 1882 - Jesse James, American outlaw (b. 1847)
- 1897 - Johannes Brahms, German composer (b. 1833)
- 1901 - Richard D'Oyly Carte, British impresario (b. 1844)
- 1932 - Wilhelm Ostwald, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1853)
- 1936 - Bruno Hauptmann, German killer of Charles Lindbergh III (b. 1899)
- 1950 - Kurt Weill, German composer (b. 1900)
- 1965 - Ernst Kirchweger, Austrian communist and resistance fighter, dies from injuries suffered during a demonstration
- 1971 - Joseph Valachi, American gangster (b. 1904)
- 1972 - Ferde Grofé, American composer (b. 1882)
- 1982 - Warren Oates, American character actor (b. 1928)
- 1986 - Richard Manuel, Canadian musician (The Band) (b. 1943)
- 1986 - Peter Pears, English tenor (b. 1910)
- 1987 - Tom Sestak, American football player (b. 1936)
- 1990 - Sarah Vaughn, American singer (b. 1924)
- 1991 - Graham Greene, English writer (b. 1904)
- 1991 - Charles Goren, American bridge player, writer, and columnist (b. 1901)
- 1993 - Pinky Lee, American children's television host (b. 1907)
- 1996 - Ron Brown, U.S. Secretary of Commerce (b. 1941)
- 1996 - Carl Stokes, Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio (b. 1927)
- 1998 - Rob Pilatus, American entertainer and criminal (Milli Vanilli) (b. 1965)
- 2000 - Terence McKenna, American writer and philosopher (b. 1946)
- 2002 - Frank Tovey (aka Fad Gadget), British singer and musician (b. 1956)
- 2005 - Tony Croatto, Italian-born singer (b. 1940)

Holidays and observances

In Iran, people play jokes on each other on April 3, the 13th day of the Persian calendar new year (Norooz). This day is called "Sizdah bedar" (Out-door thirteen). It is believed that people should go out on this date in order to escape the bad luck of number 13.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/3 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/3 Today in History: April 3] ---- April 2 - April 4 - March 3 - May 3 -- listing of all days ko:4월 3일 ms:3 April ja:4月3日 simple:April 3 th:3 เมษายน

Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary

Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone
(German)

A birodalmi tanácsban képviselt királyságok és országok és a magyar szent korona országai
(Hungarian)

Hungarian
Austria-Hungary in Europe

Hungarian
Kingdoms and countries of Austria-Hungary

Hungarian war flag	Hungarian merchant flag
Hungarian Flag of Austria Hungarian Coat of arms	Hungarian Flag of Hungary Hungarian Coat of arms
Before the 1867 Compromise
1867 Compromise Flag of the Habsburg empire

Official languages

Latin, German, Hungarian

Established church

Roman Catholic

Capital
& Largest City

Vienna
pop. 1,675,000 (1907)

Head of state

Emperor of Austria,
King of Hungary,
King of Bohemia, etc.

Area

680,887 km² (1907)

Population

48,592,000 (1907)

Currency

Rhine guilder;
Krone (from 1892)

National anthem

Volkshymne (People's Anthem)

Existed

1867-1918

Austria-Hungary (German: Österreich-Ungarn, Hungarian: Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia), also known as the Dual monarchy or as the k.u.k. monarchy, was a dualistic state (1867 –1918) in which the Kingdom of Hungary enjoyed self-government and representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence) with the western and northern lands of the Austrian Empire under the Austrian Emperors (who also reigned as Kings of Hungary) of the Habsburg dynasty. The federation bore the full name of "The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen". Austria-Hungary originated in 1867 in a compromise between the Hungarian nobility and the Habsburg monarchy in an attempt to maintain the old Austrian Empire of 1804. As a multi-national empire in an era of national awakening, it found its political life dominated by disputes among the eleven principal national groups. Although quarrelling among the groups frequently afflicted the Empire, the fifty years of its existence saw rapid economic growth and modernization, as well as many liberal reforms. At the end of World War I the British deported the Austro-Hungarian Emperor to the Island of Madeira (Portuguese). This political manouevre created a power vacuum in central Europe that would be filled in a decade by the Nazi Party and contribute to World War II.

The Lands of the Empire

Many texts refer to the non-Hungarian ("Austrian") half part of Austria-Hungary as Cisleithania -- because most of its territory lay west (or to "this" side, from an Austrian perspective) of the Leitha river (although Galicia to the north-east also counted as "Austrian"). This region (consisting of more than simply Austria) strictly speaking had no collective official name prior to 1915, and hence official sources referred to the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". (The Imperial Council (Reichsrat) functioned as Cisleithania's parliament.) Similarly, the Transleithanian ("Hungarian") half also consisted of more than simply Hungary, and bore the official designation of the "Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of [Saint] Stephen" -- a reference to the canonised first Christian king of Hungary. The "Kingdoms and Lands" of the Cisleithanian half of the Empire:
- the Kingdom of Bohemia; see Czech lands: 1867-1918
- the Kingdom of Dalmatia
- the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
- the Archduchy of Austria (as Upper Austria and Lower Austria)
- the Duchy of Bukowina
- the Duchy of Carinthia
- the Duchy of Carniola
- the Duchy of Salzburg
- the Duchy of Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia
- the Duchy of Styria
- the Margravate of Moravia; see Czech lands: 1867-1918
- the Princely County of Tyrol (including the Land of Vorarlberg),
- the Küstenland ("Coastal Land", including the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca, the City of Trieste and the Margravate of Istria). The "Lands" of the Transleithanian half of the Empire:
- the Kingdom of Hungary- including Transylvania and Vojvodina
- the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia
- the City of Fiume. Bosnia-Herzegovina formed a separate part of the Empire, jointly administered by both halves.

Creation of Austria-Hungary — The Compromise of 1867

The Ausgleich ("Compromise"; kieggyezés in Hungarian) of February 1867 which inaugurated the Empire's dualist structure in place of the former unitary Austrian Empire (1804-1867) originated at a time when Austria had declined majorly in strength and in power -- both in the Italian peninsula (as a result of the Austro-Sardinian War of 1859) and in greater Germany (culminating in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866). Other factors in the constitutional changes included continued Hungarian dissatisfaction with rule from Vienna, and increasing national consciousness on the part of other nationalities of the Austrian Empire. Hungarian dissatisfaction grew partially from Austria's suppression, with Russian support, of the Hungarian liberal revolution of 1848 – 1849. However, dissatisfaction with Austrian rule had grown for many years within Hungary, and had many causes. In an effort to shore up support for the monarchy, Emperor Franz Joseph began negotiations for a compromise with the Magyar nobility to ensure their support. Some members of the government, such as Austrian prime minister Count Belcredi, advised the Emperor to make a more comprehensive constitutional deal with all of the nationalities that would have created a federal structure. Belcredi worried that an accommodation with the Magyar interests would alienate the other nationalities. However, Franz Joseph was unable to ignore the power of the Magyar nobility, and they would not accept anything less than dualism between themselves and the traditional Austrian élites. In particular, Hungarian leaders demanded and received the Emperor's coronation as King of Hungary as a re-affirmation of Hungary's historic privileges, and the establishment of a separate parliament at Budapest with the powers to enact laws for the historic lands of the Hungarian crown (the lands of St Stephen), though on a basis which would preserve the political dominance of ethnic Hungarians (more specifically of the country's large nobility and educated élite) and the exclusion from effective power of the country's large Romanian and Slavic minorities.

Governmental Structure

Three distinct elements ruled Austria-Hungary: # the Hungarian government # the “Austrian” or Cisleithanian government # a unified administration under the monarch Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments, each with its own prime minister. Linking/co-ordinating the two fell to a government under a monarch, wielding power absolute in theory but limited in practice. The monarch’s common government had responsibility for the army, for the navy, for foreign policy, and for the customs union. Within Cisleithania and Hungary certain regions, such as Galicia and Croatia, but not the Slovak lands, enjoyed special status with their own unique governmental structures. A Common Ministerial Council ruled the common government: it comprised the three ministers for the joint responsibilities (joint finance, military, and foreign policy), the two prime ministers, some Archdukes and the monarch. Two delegations of representatives, one each from the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, met separately and voted on the expenditures of the Common Ministerial Council, giving the two governments influence in the common administration. However, the ministers ultimately answered only to the monarch, and he had the final decision on matters of foreign and military policy. Overlapping responsibilities between the joint ministries and the ministries of the two halves caused friction and inefficiencies. The armed forces suffered particularly from overlap. Although the unified government determined overall military direction, the Austrian and Hungarian governments each remained in charge of "the quota of recruits, legislation concerning compulsory military service, transfer and provision of the armed forces, and regulation of the civic, non-military affairs of members of the armed forces". Needless to say, each government could have a strong influence over common governmental responsibilities. Each half of the Dual Monarchy proved quite prepared to disrupt common operations to advance its own interests. Relations over the half-century after 1867 between the two halves of the Empire (in fact the Cisleithan part contained about 57% of the combined realm's population and a rather larger share of its economic resources) featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. Under the terms of the Ausgleich, an agreement, renegotiated every ten years, determined these matters. Each build-up to the renewal of the agreement saw political turmoil. The disputes between the halves of the empire culminated in the mid-1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis -- triggered by disagreement over the language of command in Hungarian army units, and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest (April 1906) of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo.

Ethnic relations

The ethnic distribution
of Austria-Hungary

German
Hungarian
Czech
Polish
Ruthenian
Romanian
Croat
Slovak
Serb
Slovene
Italian

24%
20%
13%
10%
8%
6%
5%
4%
4%
3%
3%

Czechs (the majority in the Czech lands, i.e.Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia), Poles and Ukrainians (in Galicia), Slovenes (in Carniola, Carinthia and southern Styria, mostly today's Slovenia) and Croats, Italians and Slovenes in Istria each sought a greater say in Cisleithan affairs. At the same time, Magyar dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of Romanians in Transylvania and in the eastern Banat, of Slovaks in today's Slovakia, of Croats and Serbs in the crownlands of Croatia and of Dalmatia (today's Croatia), in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the provinces known as the Vojvodina (today's northern Serbia). The Romanians and the Serbs also looked to union with their fellow-nationalists in the newly-founded states of Romania (1859 - 1878) and Serbia. Though Hungary's leaders showed on the whole less willingness than their German Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, they granted (it is argued) a large measure of autonomy to the kingdom of Croatia in 1868, parallelling to some extent their own accommodation within the Empire the previous year. Language was one of the most contentious questions in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in sorting out the languages of government and of instruction. Minorities wanted to ensure the widest possibility for education in their own language as well as in the "dominant" languages of Hungarian and German. On one notable occasion, that of the so-called "ordinance of April 5, 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia, leading to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the Empire. In the end Badeni was dismissed. On another occasion, the Czechs lost the privilege of using their own language in everyday life, including newspapers and in the workplace: Czechs had to use German. This caused general chaos. From January 1907 all the public and private schools in Slovak part (aprox. 3 mil. people) of Hungary were forced to teach in Hungarian language only, burning Slovak books and newspapers. This led to wide criticism by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson among others. It was not rare for the two kingdoms to divide spheres of influence. According to Misha Glenny (The Balkans, 1804-1999), the Austrians responded to Hungarian badgering of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb. (Croatia, in spite of nominal autonomy, was in fact an economic and administrative arm of Hungary; this the Croats resented.) Misha Glenny

Economy

The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist mode of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence. The old institutions of feudalism continued to disappear. Economic growth centred around Vienna, the Austrian lands (areas of modern Austria), the Alpine lands, and the Bohemian lands. In the later years of the nineteenth century rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a result of this pattern wide disparities of development existed within the Empire. In general the western areas achieved far more development than the east. By the early 20th century most of the Empire had started to experience rapid economic growth. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favourably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). (Source: Good, David. The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire). However, the Empire's economy as a whole still lagged considerably behind the economies of other powers, as it had only begun sustained modernization much later. Britain had a GNP per-capita almost three times larger than the Habsburg Empire, while Germany's stood almost twice as high as Austria-Hungary's. Nonetheless, these large discrepancies hide different levels of development within the Empire. Rail transport expanded rapidly in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its predecessor state, the Habsburg Empire, had built a substantial core of railways in the west originating from Vienna by 1841. At that point the government realized the military possibilities of rail and began to invest heavily in their construction. Bratislava, Budapest, Prague, Kraków, Graz, Laibach (Ljubljana), and Venice became linked to the main network. By 1854 the Empire had almost 2000 kilometres of track, about 60 to 70% of it in state hands. At that point the government began to sell off large portions of track to private investors to recoup some of its investments and because of the financial strains of the 1848 Revolution and of the Crimean War. From 1854 to 1879 private interests conducted almost all rail construction. What would become Cisleithania gained 7952 track kilometres, and Hungary built 5839 track kilometres. During this time many new areas joined the railway system and the existing rail networks gained connections and interconnections. This period marked the beginning of widespread rail transportation in Austria-Hungary, and also the integration of transportation systems in the area. Railways allowed the Empire to integrate its economy far more than previously possible, when transportation depended on rivers. After 1879 the Austro-Hungarian government slowly began to re-nationalize the rail network, largely because of the sluggish pace of development during the worldwide depression of the 1870s. The years between 1879 and 1900 saw more than 25,000 km of railways built in Cisleithania and Hungary. Most of this constituted "filling in" of the existing network, although some areas, primarily in the far east, gained rail connections for the first time during this period. The railroad reduced transportation costs throughout the Empire, opening new markets for products from other lands of the Dual Monarchy.

Foreign policy

The Imperial (Austrian) and Royal (Hungarian) governments differed also to some extent in their attitude toward the Empire's common foreign policy. Politicians in Budapest particularly feared annexations of territory which would add to the kingdom's non-Hungarian populations. But the Empire's alliance with Germany against Russia from October 1879 (see Dual Alliance, 1879) commanded general acceptance, since Russia seemed the principal external military threat to both parts. Austro-Hungarian forces occupied the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina from August 1878 under the Treaty of Berlin. The Empire annexed this territory in October 1908 as a common holding under the control of the finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation set up an anomalous situation which led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third component of the Empire, uniting its southern Slav regions under the domination of Croats (who might have proved more sympathetic to Vienna than to Budapest).

World War I

Vienna.]] On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, heir presumptive to his uncle the Emperor Franz Josef (Franz Josef's only son had died under still-mysterious circumstances, and Mexican republicans had executed the Emperor's brother), visited the Bosnian capital Sarajevo where Bosnian Serb militants of the nationalist group The Black Hand assassinated him. See: Assassination in Sarajevo After the Congress of Berlin the Empire's military spending didn't even double, while that of Germany rose fivefold, British, Russian and French rose threefold. The Empire had previously lost ethnically Italian areas to Piedmont due to nationalist movements sweeping through Italy, and many Austro-Hungarians felt the threat of losing the southern territories inhabited by Slavs to Serbia as imminent. Serbia had recently gained a significant amount of territory in the Second Balkan War of 1913, causing much distress in government circles in Vienna and Budapest. Some members of the government, such as Conrad von Hötzendorf had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years. The leadership of Austria-Hungary, backed by its ally Germany, decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt: using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm list of ten demands] they expected Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria-Hungary declared war. These events brought the Empire into conflict with Serbia and over the course of July and August 1914, caused the start of World War I, as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter-mobilizations. Italy initially remained neutral, although it had an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1915 it switched to the side of the Entente powers, hoping to gain territory from Austria-Hungary. Austro-Hungarian troops initially crushed Serbia, defended the routes into Hungary and repulsed Italian advances in Gorizia. The Russians then began considerable war aid to their slavic Serbian allies. The Austro-Hungarian Army suffered very serious casualties throughout the war, especially in 1914. However, they had considerable successes (albeit with German aid and direction) even advancing into enemy territory following German-led victories in Galicia (May 1915) and at Caporetto on the Italian front (October 1917). Throughout the war, the Austro-Hungarian war effort had become more and more subordinate to the direction of German planners. Supply shortages, low morale, and the high casualty rate began to seriously affect the operational abilities of the army by the last years of the war.

Dissolution of the Empire

Caporetto After the failure of the Spring Offensive the tide of war turned decisively against the Central Powers. Although the leadership of the national minorities in the Empire had remained loyal to the Habsburgs throughout the war, worsening fortunes forced them to reconsider their options. As it became apparent that the Allied Powers of the United Kingdom, France, Russia and United States would win, it became politically expedient for nationalists to renounce ties to the old state and to embrace the nationalist ideology that the winners of the war were encouraging. The Russians wanted to supplant the Austrians as being the dominant force in the territory that lay between the two countries and the British feared a Germanic Central European Power, that had legitimate claims to the title of Holy Roman Empire more than any Russian Empire. Different treaties affected the area, including the Treaty of Trianon (1920). At the victors promptings, both Austria and Hungary became republics, exiling the Habsburg family. A pro-monarchist revival in Hungary after the communist revolution and the Romanian intervention of 1919 led to the country's formal reversion to a kingdom (March 1920), but with the throne vacant. Attempts by the last Emperor, Charles I, to regain power in Budapest (March, October 1921) ended in the British deporting the Emperor to Madeira, Portugal, where he died the following year. In the absence of a king, Hungary fell under the control of a regency, headed by the naval hero Miklós Horthy. The resultant central european power vacuum created by the British and Russians created the ideal climate for the rise of the Nazi Party a decade later. Miklós Horthy The following new states formed themselves (in part or in full) out of the former Habsburg lands:
- Austria
- Hungary
- Czechoslovakia
- State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (joined with the Kingdom of Serbia on 1 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia)
- Poland In addition, some Austro-Hungarian territory went to Romania and Italy. Liechtenstein, which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection, formed a customs and defence union with Switzerland, and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian. In April 1919 Vorarlberg, the westernmost province of Austria, voted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however both the Swiss and the Allies ignored the vote.

Historiography

Historical views of Austria-Hungary have varied throughout the 20th century: Historians in the early part of the century tended to have emotional and/or personal involvement with the issues surrounding Austria-Hungary. Nationalist historians tended to view the Habsburg polity as despotic and obsolete. Other scholars, usually associated with the old government, became apologists for the traditional leadership and tried to explain their policies.
- Major writers from the early period who remain influential include: Oskar Jászi and Josef Redlich. Subsequent experience of the region's inter-war "Balkanization", of Nazi occupation, and then of Soviet domination, led to a more sympathetic interpretation of the Empire, based primarily in a large exiled community in the United States. Meanwhile, Marxist historians still tended to judge the Empire in a negative way.
- Major scholars of this period include: C. A Macartney, Robert A. Kann and Arthur J. May. One controversy among historians remains: whether the Empire faced inevitable collapse as the result of a decades-long decline; or whether it would have survived in some form in the absence of military defeat in World War I.
- Alan Sked has advanced the view that, "to speak of decline and fall with regard to the Monarchy is simply misleading: it fell because it lost a major war." (The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815–1918)
- David F. Good supports Sked's view.
- Others, such as Solomon Wank, remain skeptical.

Territorial legacy

The current countries whose entire territory were located inside Austria-Hungary by the time of the dissolution of the empire are:
- Austria
- Hungary
- Czech Republic
- Croatia
- Slovakia
- Bosnia and Hercegovina
- Slovenia The current countries whose part of their territory were located inside Austria-Hungary by the time of the dissolution of the empire are:
- Poland (voivodships of Silesia, Lesser Poland and Subcarpathia)
- Ukraine (oblasts of Zakarpattia, Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil and Chernivtsi)
- Romania (region of Transylvania and the county of Suceava)
- Serbia and Montenegro (autonomous province of Vojvodina in Serbia and the city of Kotor in Montenegro)
- Italy (autonomous regions of Trentino-South Tyrol and Friuli-Venezia Giulia)

Flags of Austria-Hungary

Image:Austria-Hungary-flag-1869-1918-naval-1786-1869-war.gif|war flag Image:Austria-Hungary flag 1869-1918.gif|merchant flag Image:Austria-hungary-imperial-colours.gif|Flag of Austria Image:Austria-hungary-coa.gif|Coat of arms Image:Flag of Hungary.png|Flag of Hungary Image:Hungary-coa.jpg|Coat of arms Image:Austria-hungary-imperial-colours.gif|Flag of the Habsburg empire (Before the 1867 Compromise)

External links

- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/austria_hungary_1911.jpg "Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary" from the Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911]
- [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/austhung.htm Maps of Austria-Hungary]
- [http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/ The Austro-Hungarian Military]

Reference

- Sked Alan The Decline And Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815-1918, London : Longman, 1989.
- Taylor, A.J.P. The Habsburg monarchy, 1809-1918 : a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, London : Penguin Books in assoc. with Hamish Hamilton, 1964, 1948 ko:오스트리아-헝가리 ja:オーストリア・ハンガリー帝国

Province of Trento

Trento (Italian Provincia autonoma di Trento, German Autonome Provinz Trient) is an autonomous province in the autonomous Trentino-South Tyrol region of Italy. The territory of the province equals that of the historic Trentino region. Its capital is the city of Trento. It has an area of 6,207 sq km, and a total population of 477,017 (2001). There are 223 communes in the province (source: Italian institute of statistics Istat, see [http://www.upinet.it/indicatore.asp?id_statistiche=6 this link]).

External link

- [http://www.provincia.tn.it Province homepage (in Italian)]
- [http://www.dolomitesworld.com/dolomites/val_di_fassa/ Val di Fassa (in english)]

ja:トレント自治県 Trento

19 August

August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 134 days remaining.

Events

- 293 BC - Oldest known Roman temple to Venus Libitina founded on the Esquiline Hill; institution of Vinalia Rustica begins.
- 1561 - Queen Mary Stuart returns to Scotland.
- 1692 - Salem Witch Trials: In Salem, Massachusetts five women and a clergyman are executed after being convicted of witchcraft.
- 1745 - Jacobite Rising, Prince Charles Edward Stuart lands from a French warship in Glenfinnan, raises his standard and marches on London - the start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion known as "the 45"
- 1768 - Saint Isaac's Cathedral is founded in Saint Petersburg, Russia
- 1782 - Battle of Blue Licks: the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War, almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander Lord Cornwallis following the Battle of Yorktown.
- 1812 - War of 1812: American frigate USS Constitution defeats the British frigate HMS Guerrière off the coast of Nova Scotia.
- 1813 - Gervasio Antonio de Posadas joins Argentina's second triumvirate.
- 1839 - Presentation of Jacque Daguerre's new photographic process to the French Academy of Sciences.
- 1848 - California Gold Rush: The New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States of the gold rush in California (although the rush started in January).
- 1862 - Indian Wars: During an uprising in Minnesota, Lakota warriors decide not to attack heavily-defended Fort Ridgely and instead turn to the settlement of New Ulm, killing white settlers along the way.
- 1895 - American frontier murderer and outlaw, John Wesley Hardin, is killed by an off-duty policeman in a saloon in El Paso, Texas.
- 1919 - Afghanistan gains independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1929 - The radio comedy show Amos and Andy makes its NBC debut starring Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll.
- 1934 - The first All-American Soap Box Derby is held in Dayton, Ohio.
- 1934 - The creation of the position Führer approved by the German electorate with 89.9% of the popular vote.
- 1942 - World War II: Operation Jubilee - The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division leads an allied forces amphibious assault on Dieppe, France.
- 1944 - World War II: Liberation of Paris - Paris rises against German occupation with the help of Allied troops.
- 1945 - Vietnam War: Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh take power in Hanoi, Vietnam.
- 1953 - Cold War: The CIA helps to overthrow the government of Mohammed Mossadegh in Iran and reinstate the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
- 1955 - In the Northeast United States, severe flooding caused by Hurricane Diane, claims 200 lives.
- 1960 - Cold War: In Moscow, downed American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the Soviet Union for espionage.
- 1960 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 5 with the dogs Belka and Strelka, 40 mice, 2 rats and a variety of plants.
- 1961 - The Australian public-affairs show Four Corners starts on the ABC.
- 1965 - Japanese prime minister Eisaku Sato becomes the first post-World War II sitting prime minister to visit Okinawa.
- 1975 - The cricket test match between England and Australia is called off after the pitch is vandalised by supporters of George Davis.
- 1980 - Saudia Flight 163, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar burns after making an emergency landing at King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, killing 301 people.
- 1981 - Gulf of Sidra Incident: Two Libyan Sukhoi Su-22 fighter jets intercept United States fighters over the Gulf of Sidra and are destroyed by them.
- 1987 - Hungerford Massacre: In the United Kingdom, Michael Ryan kills sixteen people with an assault rifle and then commits suicide.
- 1989 - Polish president Wojciech Jaruzelski nominates Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be the first non-communist Prime Minister in 42 years.
- 1990 - Leonard Bernstein conducts his final concert, ending with Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 7.
- 1991 - Soviet Union President Mikhail Gorbachev is overthrown by a coup. This leads to the fall of the Soviet Union
- 1999 - In Belgrade, tens of thousands of Serbians rally to demand the resignation of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President Slobodan Milošević.
- 2002 - A Russian Mi-26 helicopter carrying troops is hit by a Chechen missile outside of Grozny, killing 118 soldiers.
- 2003 - A car-bomb attack on UN headquarters in Iraq kills the agency's top envoy Sergio Vieira de Mello and 21 other employers.
- 2005 - The first-ever joint military exercise between Russia and China, called Peace Mission 2005 begins.

Births

- 1398 - Marqués de Santillana, Spanish poet (d. 1458)
- 1557 - Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1608)
- 1590 - Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier (d. 1649)
- 1596 - Elizabeth of Bohemia (d. 1662)
- 1621 - Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Dutch painter (d. 1674)
- 1631 - John Dryden, English poet (d. 1700)
- 1646 - John Flamsteed, English astronomer (d. 1719)
- 1686 - Eustace Budgell, English writer (d. 1737)
- 1686 - Nicola Porpora, Italian composer (d. 1768)
- 1689 - Samuel Richardson, English writer (d. 1761)
- 1711 - Edward Boscawen, British admiral (d. 1761)
- 1743 - Madame du Barry, French courtesan (d. 1793)
- 1870 - Bernard Baruch, American financier (d. 1965)
- 1871 - Orville Wright, American aviation pioneer (d. 1948)
- 1875 - Stjepan Seljan, Croatian explorer (d. 1936)
- 1878 - Manuel Quezon, President of the Philippines (d. 1944)
- 1881 - Georges Enescu, Romanian composer (d. 1955)
- 1883 - Coco Chanel, French clothing designer (d. 1971)
- 1883 - Elsie Ferguson, American film actress (d. 1961)
- 1892 - Alfred Lunt, American actor (d. 1977)
- 1896 - Olga Baclanova, Russian-born actress (d. 1974)
- 1902 - Ogden Nash, American poet (d. 1971)
- 1906 - Philo T. Farnsworth, American inventor and television pioneer (d. 1971)
- 1907 - Thurston B. Morton, American politician (d. 1982)
- 1913 - Richard Simmons, American actor (d. 2003)
- 1915 - Ring Lardner, Jr., American actor and screenwriter (d. 2000)
- 1919 - Malcolm Forbes, American publisher (d. 1990)
- 1921 - Gene Roddenberry, American television producer (d. 1991)
- 1925 - Claude Gauvreau, Canadian playwright, poet, and polemicist (d. 1971)
- 1926 - Arthur Rock, American venture capitalist
- 1930 - Frank McCourt, Irish-born author
- 1931 - Willie Shoemaker, American jockey (d. 2003)
- 1935 - Bobby Richardson, baseball player
- 1938 - Diana Muldaur, American actress, dog breeder, and dog judge
- 1939 - Ginger Baker, English musician
- 1944 - Charles B. Wang, Chinese-born philanthropist
- 1940 - Johnny Nash, American singer
- 1940 - Jill St. John, American actress
- 1942 - Fred Thompson, U.S. Senator from Tennessee and actor
- 1945 - Ian Gillan, English singer
- 1946 - Bill Clinton, 42nd President of the United States
- 1946 - Beat Raaflaub, Swiss conductor
- 1947 - Gerard Schwarz, American conductor
- 1950 - Jennie Bond, British journalist
- 1951 - John Deacon, English musician (Queen)
- 1952 - Jonathan Frakes, American actor and director
- 1955 - Peter Gallagher, American actor
- 1956 - Adam Arkin, American actor
- 1958 - Anthony Muñoz, American football player
- 1960 - Morten Andersen, American football player
- 1963 - John Stamos, American actor
- 1965 - Kyra Sedgwick, American actress
- 1966 - Lee Ann Womack, American musician
- 1969 - Matthew Perry, American actor
- 1973 - Crown Princess Mette Marit of Norway
- 1973 - Callum Blue, British actor
- 1979 - David Douglas American drummer (Relient K)
- 1980 - Darius Danesh, Scottish singer
- 1982 - Erika Christensen, American actress
- 1983 - Tammin Sursok, Australian actress

Deaths

- 14 - Augustus, Roman Emperor (b. 63 BC)
- 1186 - Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)
- 1245 - Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (b. 1195)
- 1284 - Alphonso, Earl of Chester, son of Edward I of England (b. 1273)
- 1297 - Saint Louis of Toulouse, French Catholic bishop (b. 1274)
- 1493 - Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1415)
- 1580 - Andrea Palladio, Italian architect (b. 1508)
- 1646 - Alexander Henderson, Scottish theologian
- 1662 - Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1623)
- 1753 - Balthasar Neumann, German architect (b. 1687)
- 1819 - James Watt, Scottish inventor (b. 1736)
- 1822 - Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, French mathematician (b. 1749)
- 1872 - King Charles XV / Carl IV of Sweden and Norway (b. 1826)
- 1889 - Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, French writer (b. 1838)
- 1895 - John Wesley Hardin, American gunfighter (b. 1853)
- 1923 - Vilfredo Pareto, Italian sociologist and economist (b. 1845)
- 1929 - Sergei Diaghilev, Russian ballet impresario (b. 1872)
- 1936 - Federico García Lorca, Spanish author (b. 1898)
- 1954 - Alcide De Gasperi, Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1881)
- 1957 - David Bomberg, English painter (b. 1890)
- 1959 - Jacob Epstein, American-born sculptor (b. 1880)
- 1967 - Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (b. 1884)
- 1968 - George Gamow, Ukrainian-born physicist (b. 1904)
- 1970 - Paweł Jasienica, Polish historian (b. 1909)
- 1976 - Alastair Sim, Scottish actor and former rector of Edinburgh University (b. 1900)
- 1977 - Groucho Marx, American comedian and actor (b. 1890)
- 1980 - Otto Frank, father of Anne Frank
- 1994 - Linus Pauling, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Peace (b. 1901)
- 1995 - Pierre Schaeffer, French composer (b. 1910)
- 2003 - Carlos Roberto Reina, President of Honduras (b. 1926)
- 2003 - Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilian diplomat (b. 1948)
- 2005 - Bueno de Mesquita, Dutch comedian and actor (b. 1918)
- 2005 - Mo Mowlam, British politician (b. 1949)

Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - Vinalia Rustica celebrated in honor of Venus Libitina commemorating the founding of the oldest known temple to her, on the Esquiline Hill, in 293 BC on this date.
- RC saints - Saint Sebald, Saint Louis of Toulouse, Jean-Eudes de Mézeray
- Afghanistan - Afghan Independence Day see above: 1919
- National Day of the Filipino Language, Philippines - Holiday for Quezon City, Quezon Province and other municipalities named after Manuel Quezon
- National Aviation Day, USA
- Ghost Festival, the 14th day in the 7th lunar month in the Chinese calendar (2005)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/8/19 Today in History: August 19] ---- August 18 - August 20 - July 19 - September 19 -- listing of all days ko:8월 19일 ms:19 Ogos ja:8月19日 simple:August 19 th:19 สิงหาคม

Politician

A politician is an individual involved in politics to the extent of holding or running for public office. In Western democracies, the term is generally restricted to those officials who attain their position through election campaigns, rather than all members of the state bureaucracy. Such a distinction is less clear in non-democratic forms of government. In a state, individual politicians compose the executive branch of government and the office of Head of State (unless the head of state is a non-political figure, such as a king) as well as the legislative branch, and regional and local levels of government. Other organs of government such as the judicial branch, law enforcement, and the military are not usually regarded as being composed of politicians, despite the fact that the men and women involved do government work. Sometimes political scientists are also refered to as politicians. The Australian slang term for politicians is pollies. Some common offices for politicians can include:
- Alderman
- Congressman
- Councillor
- Governor
- Mayor
- Member of Parliament
- Minister
- Premier
- President
- Prime Minister
- School board member
- Senator

External link

- [http://politicalgraveyard.com/chrono/index.html List of American Politicians by Year Born or Died] Politicians Politician
- ja:政治家

Founding Fathers

Founding Fathers are persons instrumental in the establishment of an institution, usually a political institution, especially those connected to the origination of its ideals. The term is most often used in more reverential treatments of national history. Objections have sometimes been raised to indicate that the term is inherently partial to the role of men in history, and thus sexist. Alternate terms, such as "Framers", or "Founders" may be used to be more inclusive of female participation. There is, of course, the counter-argument that patriarchal dominance in history has been the rule and that the term is thus more descriptive of an era (or of most eras) than it is truly sexist. Alternate terms such as these may also be used to indicate a more neutral attitude to the individuals in question, as while anyone may be a founder of a nation, the implication of familial relationship is likely to be something more personal. An American, for instance, might be less likely to refer to the "Founding Fathers" of Canada, and vice versa--the term itself is generally particular to one's own country, and may be more often used in reference to American history than to that of other nations.

Examples

- The creators and early developers of the United States of America, such as the signers of its Declaration of Independence and the framers of its Constitution—see Founding Fathers of the United States.
- Canada has its Fathers of Confederation—see Canadian Confederation.
- The leaders of the Australian federalist movement in the 1890s might also be described as Founding Fathers.
- Robert Schuman, Jean Monnet, Konrad Adenauer, Alcide De Gasperi, Paul-Henri Spaak and Altiero Spinelli have been referred to as the founding fathers of the European Union.
- Simon Bolivar, Jose Antonio Paez, General Rafael Urdaneta, Francisco de Paula Santander have been referred to as the founding fathers of the northern countries of South America (Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama, Ecuador, Bolivia)
- Giuseppe Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II, Count Cavour, Giuseppe Mazzini have been referred to as the founding fathers of the Kingdom of Italy
- Eidgenossen

Robert Schuman

:For the German composer, see Robert Schumann Robert Schumann Robert Schuman (June 29 1886 – September 4

De Gasperi

See also

3 April

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Austria-Hungary

The Lands of the Empire

Creation of Austria-Hungary — The Compromise of 1867

Governmental Structure

Ethnic relations

Economy

Foreign policy

World War I

Dissolution of the Empire

Historiography

Territorial legacy

Flags of Austria-Hungary

See also

External links

Reference

Province of Trento

External link

19 August

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Politician

See also

External link

Founding Fathers

Examples

See also

Robert Schuman