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Marathas

Marathas

shows the coronation of Shivaji in 1674.]] Maratha is an Indo-Aryan, kshatriya (warrior) caste of Marathi language speaking people primarily residing in the plains and hills of India's western state of Maharashtra. Marathas are considered to be the descendants of the ancient dynasties of the region, Yadava, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, Kadamaba etc. Historically they supported several traditions, Buddhism, Vaishnava, Jain, Shaiva etc. Currently they are devout Hindus. Marathas and Marathis are confused by many people to be one and the same. It must be noted that Marathis are any people speaking Marathi language while Marathas are only people belonging to Maratha caste. The Marathas belonging to 96 royal clans (including Yadavas, Chalukyas, Satvahanas, Bhosales, Rashtrakutas, Kadambas etc.) are called Kuli Marathas.

Origins

The people of Maharashtra are termed "Rashtrik" in Ashoka's inscriptions. It is called "Maha-rashtra" afterwards, as attested by Huein-Tsang and other travellers. "Maharashtri" is an old form of Prakrit, an ancient Indian language. There are several theories put forward by different schools of thought: one version suggests the derivation of the name from "land of the the Rattas", Ratta is alternative form for Rashtrakuta. Just like the 96 clans of Marathas, there are 36 clans of the Rajputs, who mainly live in Rajasthan, Gujarat and nearby regions. There are some connections between the two groups. Among the Rajputs, the Rathores and the Solankis originated from the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas from Latur, Manyakheta and nearby regions. The Paramaras are regarded to be a branch of the Rashtrakutas.

Notable Marathas

- Chhatrapati Shivaji Bhonsle
- Rajmata Vijayraje Scindia of Gwalior
- Madhavrao Scindia of Gwalior
- Vasundhara Raje, Chief Minister of Rajasthan
- Sharad Pawar Some notable individuals who were not Maratha per se, but represent the Maratha spirit.
- Rani Lakshmi Bai (Karhade)
- Peshwa Baji Rao I (Chitpavan)
- Rajmata Ahilya Devi Holkar (Dhangar)

Maratha Dynasties

- Sindhias (Shinde) of Gwalior
- Gaekwads of Baroda
- Pawars of Dewas and Dhar
- Pawars of Chhatarpur
- Holkars of Indore
- Bhonsles of Tanjore
- Bhonsles of Satara
- Bhonsles of Kolhapur
- Bhonsles of Nagpur

External links

- [http://marathas.tripod.com/ Marathas and Their Origins]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/5180/serfoji.html Thanjavur Maharaja Serfoji's Saraswathi Mahal Library]
- [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/2001/10/02/stories/05022511.htm Madhavrao Scindia, 1945-2001]

Clan Names

There are several lists of 96 clan names, with some minor differences. You can find the lists of sub-clans at talk:Maratha. The following list gives the names of the clans in the order of the Devanagari script (akaradi-krama).

Number Gotra Kula

1 Bhardwaj Ahirrao 
2 Gargya Aangre 
3 Durvas Aangan 
4 Bhardwaj Ingale 
5 Bhardwaj Kadam 
6 Bhardwaj Kale  
7 Kaundinya Kakade A branch of Pawar 
8 Kashyapa Kokate A branch of Chavhan 
9 Vashistha Khandagale 
10 Lomash Khadtare (Khadgdhari) 
11 Markandey Khaire Khadir 
12 Kaushik Gavhane  
13 Shaunak Gujar Branch of Pratihar 
14 Gautam Gaekwad  
15 Kashyapa Chavhan 
16 Kashyapa Ghatge 
17 Mandavya Chalukya 
18 Mandavya Jagtap 
19 Kapil Jagdale  
20 Kapil Jagdhane 
21 Kaushik Thakur 
22 Atri Yadav 
23 Shaunak Dhamale  
24 Kashyapa Dhamdhere 
25 Bhardwaj Dhavale 
26 Vatsa Dhekale 
27 Bhardwaj Dhone 
28 Vishwavasu Tayade 
29 Gargya Tuwar 
30 Kaundinya Teje 
31 Bhardwaj Thorat  
32 Vashistha Thote 
33 Vashistha Darbare 
34 Vashistha Dalvi 
35 Shaunak Dabhade  
36 Vishwamitra Dharmraj 
37 Kaushik Devkante 
38 Bhardwaj Dhaibar  
39 Durvas Dhumal 
40 Vashistha Nalawade 
41 Bhardwaj Nalindhare  
42 Parashar Nikam 
43 Vajpey Nisal  
44 Vashistha Pawar 
45 Bhardwaj Pratihar 
46 Kashyapa Pansare 
47 Lomash Pandhare 
48 Kashyapa Pathare 
49 Bhardwaj Palav Pal 
50 Shaunak Palandh  
51 Bhardwaj Pingale 
52 Kaushik Pisal  
53 Yadynavalk Phadtare 
54 Kaushik Phalke  
55 Vishwamitra Phakde  
56 Bhardwaj Phatak 
57 Shaunak Bagawe  
58 Bhardwaj Bagarao  
59 Bhardwaj Bande 
60 Bhardwaj Babar 
61 Kashyapa Bhagwat 
62 Kaushik Bhosale 
63 Kaushik Bhovare 
64 Kaushik Bhogale 
65 Shaunak Bhoite 
66 Madhure Madhure 
67 Bhardwaj Malape 
68 Gargya Mane 
69 Kashyapa Malusare  
70 Maslywant Mahadik 
71 Aagsti Mhambar 
72 Gautam Mulik  
73 Gautam More 
74 Gargya Mohite 
75 Kashyapa Rathod 
76 Kaushik Rashtrakut 
77 Jamdagni Rane 
78 Jamdagni Raut  
79 Vishwamitra Renuse 
80 Vashistha Lad 
81 Vatsa Vagh 
82 Shaunak Vichare  
83 Vishwamitra Shilahar (Shelar) 
84 Gargya Shankhpal 
85 Kaundinya Shinde (Sendrak) 
86 Kashyapa Shitole 
87 Shandilya Shirke 
88 Kaundinya Savale (Shalivahan) 
89 Durvas Sawant 
90 Bhardwaj Salunkhe Branch of Chalukya 
91 Mandavya Sambare 
92 Kaushik Shisode (Guhit)  
93 Vashistha Surve  
94 Vishnu Hande 
95 Kaushik Harphale 
96 Vashistha Kshirsagar

Some further details on the clans can be seen at talk:Maratha. Category:Social groups of India

Indo-Aryan

Indo-Aryan refers to
- Indo-Aryan languages
- Indo-Aryans, the various peoples speaking these languages See also: Indo-Iranian, Aryan, Arya.

Kshatriya

According to the code of Manu, a Kshatriya is a member of the military or reigning order, one of four varna within the Vedic caste system. Generally, the kshatriyas are thought to be ranked second in hierarchy, the first being the Brahmin or priestly varna, the third the Vaishya or artisans and craftsmen and the fourth Shudras (farmers and agricultural workers).

Other names for Kshatriya

In Nepal the Kshatriyas are known as Chhetris and Khatri in Punjab. Like other varna, the kshatriyas may also be further subdivided into various jaati or sub-castes depending on the location in the Indian sub-continent. Indian Catholics, who were previously Hindus converted into Christianity, continue with the caste system, where the Kshatriyas are called Charddo.

Etymology of Kshatriya

Sanskrit kṣatriya is derived from kṣatra "dominion, power, government" and ultimately from a root kṣi "to rule, govern, possess". In the early Vedic civilization, the Kshatriya caste was called rājanya rather than kṣatriya, an adjectival form of rājan "ruler, king" from a root rāj "to rule", cognate to Latin rex "king" and German Reich "empire". In India, the period after the Epic Age or the Later Vedic Age (roughly 1000 BC to 600 BC) was marked by the rise of numerous small kingdoms. The Brahmins (priests, religious teachers, philosophers) generally were advisors of Kshatriya kings. The Kshatriya and Brahmin hierarchy was found in Indo-Aryan regions from Iran to southern India. In some parts of southern India, Brahmins traditionally married Ksahtriya girls, and their offspring live with their mother and were considered to be of Kshatriya caste.

Khatris

Khatris are descended from the original Kshatriya families of ancient times.The modern Khatri is often a landowner, government worker, military officer or soldier.

Foreign elements

Not all rulers were descended from the Vedic Kshatriyas. In the recent past, many came from other castes, or were descended from non-Hindu foreign conquerors, and were granted de facto "Kshatriya status" by virtue of the power they held. The varna system spread, through acculturation, throughout India and into southeast Asia; for instance, the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, and Paradas were foreign invaders from the north-west but were finally assimilated into the Indian community with Kshatriya status (Ref: History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, pp 286-87, 313-14). See also: [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/07/07/stories/2002070700310400.htm]. Manu Smriti attests that these tribes were originally noble Kshatriyas, but were later relegated to Shudra because they did not follow the sacred Brahmanical rites and codes and had neglected the Brahmanas in their countries. The modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas still live as Kamboj/Kamboh in greater Punjab, and the Kamoz/Camoje/Kam in Nurestan province of Afghanistan. The Kamboj are noted for their contribution to agriculture and the military.

Rajputs

The Rajputs of Rajasthan and northern India also claim to be the bona fide descendants of the Vedic Kshatriyas. Rajput written history goes back to Bappa Rawal (Kalbhoj) (b. Prince Kalbhoj, ca 713-d. 753, eighth ruler of the Guhilot Dynasty and founder of the Mewar Dynasty which has the distinction of being the oldest surviving royal dynasty in the world.

Caste

Caste systems have existed throughout history and throughout the world, but the most well-known caste system today is the Indian Varna system. Around one in 25 people in the world experiences some form of caste discrimination; more than half of these are in India. The word caste is derived from the Portuguese or Spanish word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race.

Overview

Anthropologists use the term more generally to refer to a social group that is endogamous and occupationally specialized; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility. Broadly understood, South Africa during the era of apartheid, the practice of slavery in the antebellum South of the United States through the Civil Rights movement, colonial Latin America under Spanish and Portuguese rule (see Casta), and India prior to 1947 were all class and caste-based societies. Caste is not unique to Hinduism. Aside from India, caste systems still exist today in other parts of South Asia, and some countries in Africa have equivalents of the Untouchables (Dalit) as a small proportion of the population.[http://www.dalits.org/globalcastesystems.htm]

Varna

In Sanskrit, Varņa means color, appearance, physical form or characteristic. One of the hymns of the Rig Veda, one of the holiest Hindu scriptures, gives the following enumeration in the famous Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90): "What became of his (the Cosmic Spirit's) face or mouth? What became of his two arms? What became of His two thighs? What were (the products of) the two feet called? From His face (or the mouth) came the brahmanas. From His two arms came the rajanya (the kshatriyas). From His two thighs came the vaishyas. From His two feet came the shudras." This is the only hymn in the Rig Veda, which belongs to that book (Xth) which many historians claim to be a little later addition to the existing nine books, that enumerates the four Varnas for the first and the last time (without defining anything). The other three Vedas and Upanishads have extremely rare mention of the Varnas. In later Hinduism, people interpreted this hymn such that the society is to be divided into four Varnas or castes, which are:
- Brahmana: The priests and the teachers
- Kshatriya (or Rajanya): Administrators and Military men
- Vaishya (or Arya): Traders, merchants, businessmen, farmers and herdsmen
- Shudra: Servants However, in even later Hinduism, as claimed by the Manu Smriti, there came to exist another class of people who were not even given a position in any of the four Varnas, and consequently, became associated with the meanest of the jobs. The upper castes who were supposed to maintain ritual and corporal purity, came to regard them as untouchables. Hence there also came about a fifth varna, which some say arose out of "nowhere", of people now called the Dalits (the oppressed), Harijans or Untouchables. It is very clear that in the early Vedic times, the Varna system (if at all it existed) meant classes with free mobility of jobs and intermarriage. One hymn of the Rig Veda states: "I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......" While intermarriage between Brahmana bridegrooms and Kshatriya princesses was extremely common (even sanctioned by the later Manu Smriti), in many instances, marriages between Kshatriya princes and Brahmana brides was also observed (severely condemned by Manu Smriti). One of such instances is marriage of Dushyanata, a Kshatriya prince, with Shakuntala, a daughter of the sage Vishvamitra and adopted daughter of sage Kanva. In later times, with the elaboration of ritualism, the caste system became absolutely hereditary (the historians disagree as to when) and the Shudras were not even allowed to hear the sacred word of the Vedas. "If the shudra intentionally listens for committing to memory the veda, then his ears should be filled with (molten) lead and lac; if he utters the veda, then his tongue should be cut off; if he has mastered the veda his body should be cut to pieces." (Manu Smriti XII. 4) A stark contrast to this is a mantra from the White Yajur Veda itself: "I do hereby address this salutary (Vedic) speech for the benefit of humanity – for the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Shudras, the Vaishas, the kinsfolk and the men of lowest position in society. May I be dear to the learned in this world."

Twice Born

The first three castes are seen as 'twice born', and are allowed to study the vedas. Existence of Castes is validated through the idea of rebirth according to a person's karma, the sum of an individual's deeds in this life and in past lives. After death, a person's life is judged by divine forces, and rebirth is assigned in a high or a low place, depending upon what is deserved.

Jati

- Sub-castes within a Varna are called Jati
- Each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati.
- People are born into their Jati and it cannot be changed.
- Each jati is part of a locally based system of interdependence with other groups, involving occupational specialization, and is been linked in complex ways with networks that stretch across regions and throughout the nation.

Varna and Jati

- Within each of these categories are the actual "sub-castes"(jatis) within which people are born, marry, and die.
- Although a varna is not a sub-caste, when asked, many Indians associate affiliations with a jati (sub-caste) name
- They all have their own place among each other and accept that it is the way to keep society from disintegrating to chaos.
- The first four Varnas existed in ancient Aryan society of Northern India and were originally fluid groups.
- The caste system is used by Hindus, particularly in India and Nepal for reasons of determining lineage passed down through patrilineal descent.
- Although illegal, the system still has a major role in modern India.

Inequalities among castes

- Part of the divinely ordained natural order expressed in terms of purity and pollution

Dharma

Each caste is believed by devout Hindus to have its own dharma, or divinely ordained code of proper conduct. Accordingly, there is often a high degree of tolerance for divergent lifestyles among different castes.

Indian caste system

The Indian caste system is a social system in which people are divided into separate communities, known in English as castes, and in Hindi as Varna meaning "colour" or quality. The origin of the caste system is unknown (it exists in Indian populations as jatis) but it affected the many societies that occupy the Indian sub-continent, and later it was transmitted to Nepal. Most Western thought and writing on the subject misapplies the term jati (sub-caste) to the Sanskrit word for Varna (or Caste). In Hindu religious terms the caste system was initiated by Manu, a Hindu priest. This system was basically a simple division of society into four castes or Varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra) arranged according to their function in Indian society. The four varnas by which the function of Indian society has been grouped cannot be identified with the color of the human skin, but by its "quality" or functions in pan-Indian sense. Beyond these four castes were the panchamas (or fifths) . These groups were regarded as impure due to their traditional occupations of handling impure substances and therefore were "Untouchable" (Dalit) outcastes until a few decades ago. For most Indians however, the central fact of their social identity is the sub-caste (jati) grouping they belong to, not the caste or Varna that a particular jati may be thought to fall under. Legally the Indian government forbids the practice of caste-based discrimination. The historic lower castes are provided opportunities through a system called "reservations", in which they are provided with quotas in jobs and educations (A step above affirmative action). Between 20-25% of all opportunities in higher education are reserved for the so called "scheduled castes" and other "backward castes". The caste system has existed in India from time immemorial. The word "caste" is supposed to translate the Sanskrit word "Varna" but sometimes erraneously as "jati" which is actually a sub-caste in a local region. The sub-caste (jati) belongs to a particular "varna". jati designates specialized hereditary functions to an endogamous community locally. Given the long history of humans on the Indian sub-continent and the semi-independent development of numerous socio-cultural groups, the population came to be differentiated by endogamous and occupational groupings, perhaps from pre-historic times. These were and still are subgroups (sub-castes) belonging to the four Varnas. By the time we see the development of a pan-Indian cultural notion of Varna, essentially that of being a "Hindu", the sub-caste jatis had proliferated which led to the complexity of India's social structure. Hinduism came to be "Varnashrama Dharma", the order of (four) castes and (four) stages in life. In pan-Indian terms, each local jatis were associated with a particular Varna in pan-Indian sense. The people belong to a jati or sub-caste are being identified by their social function/occupation locally and not determined by their economic status i.e, identified by their jati-dharma or jati-function/occupation. Most Indian law givers, maintained that the caste of Brahmins are foremost followed by the Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra in the social hierarchy. Perhaps the most interesting point about this caste structure is not that it is hierarchical (which it is without a doubt) but rather that the hierarchy disperses only social status but not necessarily economic power. Local jati sub-castes have also been largely endogamous except when different jati occupational groups merged their jati identification within a Varna. Hence, the proliferation of endogamous groups leading to jati diversity within each four Varna, as too the similarities across them. Much attention has been paid to the limitations on marriages across varna/jati categories. Again it is instructive to note that many influential Brahmins, presumptive superiors in the traditional social ordering, had marriage relations that spanned Varnas. Some part of India, Brahmins used to marry Kshatriya Varna girls but less frequently with Vaishya girls. In these cases the offspring invariably takes the caste of Kshatriya and Vaisya respectively. Brahmins developed various new systems and practices to increase their own numbers and spread the philosophy of social division based on birth. For example, in Bengal, a system of polygamy was developed and widely practiced by Brahmins called "Kulin System". This system was based on the edict that each brahmin sub-caste must marry their daughters to a higher sub-caste brahmin in order to maintain the purity and improve purity of their blood. This edict forced the people to find a suitable life partner for their daughters from a small number of brahmins who many a times took money to get married to a girl. This arrangement, however, did not put any obligations on the groom to fulfil his marital duties. The bride remained in her parental house and the husband visited her only when he wished. This way brahmin population increased greatly and became the majority single caste. The Varna and jati system do not appear to have been the product of a conquering or dominating socio-economic class. Both systems have survived and indeed identification of jati has strengthened, long after the supposed era of "Brahmin dominance". The system is instead an implicit negotiation between India's numerous hereditary occupational (and infrequently ethnic) endogamous groups. The jati system at any given point in time is a point of equilibrium between these elements of society both at the local and pan-Indian level.

Modern perceptions of caste

Whilst the ancient Vedas are said to talk about only four varnas or castes, contemporary India has numerous sub-castes (jatis) within each Varna, officially documented (primarily to determine those deserving reservation, an affirmative action process similar to and pre-dating the US system) through the census. Caste-based politics have strong roots in many Indian states. At most times, conversions to other religions like Christianity, or Islam, does not result in end of jati identity due to deep social stratification and lack of social mobility. The embracement of the lower castes into the mainstream of society was brought about by Mahatma Gandhi who called them Harijans ("people of God"). Mahatma Gandhi was himself a devout Hindu who vehemently believed in sanctity of Varna system that was at the root of Caste system in India and all the related social prejudices. His naming of lower castes as Harijans ("people of God") simply became a euphemism (another name) by which the upper castes call the lower castes. In fact, Mahatma Gandhi hurt the cause of Dalit upliftment by opposing Dr. B. R. Ambedkar's movement and the major concessions he won from erstwhile Indian Government. Dr. Ambedkar was able to win right of representation in Legislative assemblies and Separate electorate for Dalits. But Gandhi went on a hunger strike to blackmail Dr. Ambedkar to give up the hard-won victory and fruits of decades-long struggle. He claimed that lower classes were themselves Hindus and should not be regarded as a separate group, however ground realities were in stark contrast to his stand. Currently, India has tough laws against untouchability on the basis of caste. In India caste affects daily life. Matrimony between members of different castes is still looked down upon, Intercaste marriages are very rare. Caste based atrocities sometimes occur in many economically backward states and isolated rural districts. There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the erstwhile outcastes, by the provision of education, reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, and a 12.5% quota in government jobs with faster promotions. These affirmative actions have often been challenged in courts, and through mass protests. Anti-reservation activists allege that the process, which they suspect is fuelled by political gains, artificially fosters the sub-divisions. A few allege that in the process of categorizing people "who need reservation", sub-caste based jati identities becomes very important and is firmly entrenched in the Indian psyche. Many also allege that the progress of the meritorious is cramped by the reservation system, which has not been set any deadline by the Constitution of India. Pro-reservation activists allege that the system helps in upliftment of the lower castes and needs to be in place until all sections achieve an equal status in the Indian society. However, what started as a way of upliftment of a certain section of the society, has turned into a full fledged vote bank issue for the politicians. Certain states in India have a reservations of over 70%. Still not even 4% of the total "scheduled caste" population has been able to reach the higher rungs of decision making bureaucracy. In fact participation of scheduled castes in all areas of govenance, education, private section and business is negligible. This reflects the glaring gap between legislations and implementations. In fact the failure of scheduled castes in taking advantage of this system has been due to total failure of state in providing sufficient facilities in area of basic education. Most of the scheduled caste students study in government-run school that do not charge any fees. But the quality of education is very bad and the system works to the disadvantage of these students, especially in rural areas as even teachers are found to be prejudiced against lower caste students. People who oppose the system of reservations in education and jobs, however, always forget the centuries old system of social and economic reservation that upper castes of Hindus have been enjoying. Basic understanding of the way casteism has been operating in India for centuries is in the order to see through this logic. For centuries, the education was sole prerogative of the "Twice Born" and the lower castes or today's "scheduled castes" were kept away from education and any kind of access to formal knowledge by force. This single edict was so strongly practised that the holiest of Hindu scriptures contained edicts as to how one should conduct the business of law if a Shudra was found to be practising knowledge acquisition by any means. The "Shambook Vadh" incident in "Uttar Kand" of Ramayana is one such incident where King Rama kills a shudra sage "Shambook" simply because he attempted to cross the boundaries of Varnashram Dharma by trying to acquire knowledge and attaining Nirvana. Then the second level of traditional "reservation" has been of economic kind. There were various levels to this as well. Shudras were not supposed to practice any profession that could give them financial independence. They were supposed to only serve the first three classes and in turn, it was the duty of the "twice borne" to make sure that he does not go hungry. This effectively ensured the economic slavery of Shudras at the feet of upper castes. At second level, the laws were enacted that took away the right to wealth from shudras. A Shudra could not accumulate any kind of wealth, be it money, metal or livestock. If he does so, the Brahmins had power to take it away from him. So this "reserved" all the financial resources for the three top vernas. The next level was the social reservation for upper classes. Untouchables were not allowed to use the same streets, same water resources and same better housing as the three upper classes. This way they were forced to drink water from unsafe and unhygienic sources causing various diseases and infections thereby limiting their strength and life-spans. In the light of above facts, you can well imagine the system of reservation that has been prevalent in India for a long long time. Even today, there are villages and towns, where these "reservations" for upper castes exists in one form or other. But there is never any movement or public protests against these from the anti-reservation lobby. Their sole target is the small number of seats that are offered in Government run schools/colleges to the poorest of the poor students in the form of reservations.

Nepalese caste system

The caste system in Nepal can be traced back to the introduction of Muluki Ain (1854) by Jung Bahadur Rana after his return from his European tour. The Muluki Ain (1854) was a written version of social code that had been in practice for several centuries in Nepal. Its caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure castes. These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence. (Harka Gurung 2005:3,Occational Papers in Sociology and Anthropology) · Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy chord) · Matwali v Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) v Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers) · Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) · Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes) The above mention categories implies that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy chord) remains in the highest hierarchy in Hindu caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers touchable caste and lastly untouchable. Muluki Ain imposes the caste system in Nepal in order to incorporate people of different origin to bring under one umbrella of caste system. The first categories of Thagadhari which include Parbate Brahmin and Chettri are in the higher categories of hierarchy where as Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmin as per Muluki Ain do not fall under these categories. Matwali group, salvable and enslavable falls under second categories, which include the people of ethnic origin and Brahmins of terai and Newari Brahmins. It also includes those people in the non-enslavable group such as Magar, Gurung, Rai, and Limbu etc and enslavable are Tamang, Chepang, Thami etc. Untouchable are the categories of varnas system in ancient Manu's Code but some people such as Musalman and foreigners as well falls under these categories. Untouchables are divided into Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) and Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes). In present day context caste system falls under Hindu varna system i.e, Brahmin, Khatria Vaisias and Sudra respectively instead of following Muluki Ain's codification, as ethnic group do not follow the caste system because they have their own culture, tradition ,religion and values system which do not fall under caste system.

Sri Lankan caste system

The caste system appears to have been introduced to Sri Lanka by Aryan-language-speakers from North India. There is evidence of the main vedic castes in the early Anuradhapura era. The introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE somewhat blunted the edge of the system somewhat. However, there is a reference to King Dutugemunu Abhaya's son, Saliya choosing to lose caste by marrying Asokamala, a Chandala (outcaste) woman, in the 2nd century BCE. The later caste system seems to have evolved as much through waves of ethnic migration as by occupation. Among the present-day Sinhalese the Vedic categories no longer exist, while among the Sri Lanka Tamils, the only Vedic category to persist is that of Brahmins; these ethnic groups share many categories. The major Sinhalese castes (Jathi) are: Govigama or Goyi ('farmers'), Navandhaenna or Ridhi (silversmiths), Karava (fishermen), Dhurave (toddy tappers), Salagama or Haali (cinnamon peelers), Wahumpura or Hakuru (Jaggery-makers), Bathgama or Padhu (bearers), Berava (Tom-tom beaters), Panna (grass-cutters), Kumbal (potters), Radha (Washers or Dhobies), Demelagaththaro (Tamil tribes) and Hinna (washers to the Salagamas). There also 'Out' castes, the Tamil-speaking, wandering 'Gypsies' - Rodi and Ahikuntaka. The aboriginal Veddas were considered to be outside the caste system: many aristocratic families claim descent from these tribes; however, the 'Gypsy' castes may be offshoots of aboriginal hunters employed by the ancient kings. Among the Tamils, many of these castes are duplicated: Vellala (equivalent to Govigama), Karaiyar (Karava) and Dhuraiyar (Dhurave). There is also a caste called Kovi, the members of which claim to be Sinhalese Govigama isolated in Tamil areas after the Chola conquest of the North. The Indian Tamils who were brought over by the British as indentured labour were mainly from the lower Indian castes; the South Indian categories came over with them. It appears that caste was more important than ethnicity until comparatively recently. In pre-British times, the Govigama were classed as Vellala by the colonial authorities. Eurasians and South Indian Chetties were absorbed into the Govigamas. Cross-ethnic marriage was fairly common. Several leading 'aristocratic' Sinhalese families are descended from Tamils or Keralites. Many Karavas speak Tamil at home and have relatives among the 'Tamil' Karaiyars. Religious practice tends to reinforce the caste system. In the feudal era, people of low castes were not allowed into the shrines of the major gods or into the Buddhist clergy. The priests of the gods (kapuralas) had to be Govigama among the Sinhalese, Brahmins among the Tamils. However, the 'Devil Dancers' (exorcists, healers and sorcerers) were drawn from the tom-tom beating caste. In the 19th century the Amarapura and Ramanna sects were formed to allow non-Govigama priests to be ordained, in opposition to the casteist Siam sect. In the late 1960s, there were a series of 'Temple Struggles' in the northern Jaffna district, during which members of lower castes forced their way into Hindu temples, establishing their right of entry.

Balinese caste system

Japanese caste system

Castes in ancient Israel

Something akin to the caste system was also found in Judaism (during the Temple period), which divided its society into the inherited Cohanim priesthood, who, due to their Temple duties, had access to most parts of the Temple, Levites, whose auxiliary duties allowed them somewhat less access than the Cohanim, and the rest of the Israelites, whose involvement in the Temple was lesser than the Levites. This "caste system" had mostly ritualistic ramifications, and the social side-effects were very limited and far lesser than those found in the Hindu caste system, which entailed almost complete social separation and a clear social hierarchy. Intermarriage was completely allowed within the Israelite people, with rare exception (such as the prohibition against a Cohen marrying a divorcee), and the Israelites were prohibited only from marrying outside their own people. This Israelite "caste system" continued along lines of Patrilineal descent. Converts to the Israelite people were considered full Israelites, and Mosaic law demanded that they be treated kindly and with special sensitivity. In contemporary Judaism, despite the absence of the Temple, certain ritual laws continue to apply to Cohanim, and both they and the Levites are honored with deferential formalities in some rituals.

Castes in Rwanda and Burundi

The caste system is also found in Africa, in Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Congo; here it is known as ubuhake. The Tutsi, who comprise about 15% of the population of these areas, were the ruling, Cattle-owning caste - corresponding to the "Kshatriyas" in the Vedic system. Below them were the Hutu, the farmers - corresponding with the Vedic Sudras; about 80% of the population. Fewer than 3% of the population are Twa or Pygmies, whose role is somewhat parallel to that of tribes people outside the Vedic caste system, and who are hunters, potters and jesters. During the German suzerainty over Rwanda and Burundi, the authorities reinforced the system by employing Tutsis in hegemonic roles. The Belgian colonialists who succeeded them after World War I continued this policy, instituting 'ethnic' identity cards. They also incorporates subsidiary populations, such as the Hima and the Baganwa, into the Tutsi. After independence, caste tensions intensified. In 1972, Tutsis were responsible for a wholesale massacre of Hutus. In the 1990s, Hutus responded with a counter-massacre. What has been internationally labelled an 'ethnic war' is in fact a caste struggle, with many parallels to that in Bihar in India, where the Brahmins and the Yadavs (farmers) are in a permanent state of tension.

References

- Bryce Ryan, Caste in Modern Ceylon, Rutgers University Press, 1953.

External links

[http://www.pakdalits.tk Scheduled Castes (DALITS) in Pakistan]
- New Internationalist, July 2005, "Combatting Caste"
- [http://codesign.scu.edu/hinduism/ The Caste System in India]
- [http://atributetohinduism.com/Caste_System.htm Jati system in India]
- [http://www.tamilnation.org/caste/ Caste & the Tamil Nation - Brahmins, Non Brahmins & Dalits]
- Koenraad Elst's articles on Caste: [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch1.htm#16a Caste in India], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch11.htm#49a Buddhism and Caste], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/wiah/ch9.htm#78a Indian tribals and Caste], [http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ch49.htm Physical anthropology and Caste],
- [http://www.kamat.com/indica/caste/ The Caste System: Introduction, Myths and Reality]
- Category:Social groups of India Category:Hindu law ms:Sistem kasta ja:カースト

Marathi

Marathi (मराठी) is one of the 15 official languages spoken in India, and has a long literary history purportedly dating back to the 8th century A.D. The first Marathi document having been discovered in the state now known as Karnataka. There are approximately 90 million speakers of Marathi in the Maharashtra state. Marathi's grammar and syntax is primarily based on Sanskrit. The following variations of the name Marathi can also be found: Maharashtri, Maharathi, Malhatee and Marthi.

History

Marathi descends from the Sanskrit language of India via the Prakrit dialect Maharashtri. The Satavahana empire based at Pratishthana (now Paithan) in the first few centuries CE used Maharashtri as its official language. Maharashtri became the most widespread Prakrit dialect of its time, and also pre-dominated amongst the three "Dramatic" Prakrits (Maharashtri, Sauraseni and Magadhi). A version of Maharashtri, Jaina Maharashtri, served to write part of the Jain canon. The Satavahana emperor Hala's Sattasai (Sanskrit Saptashati) — an anthology of 700 love poems — is the most famous piece of literature in Maharashtri. Maharashtri slowly evolved into Marathi during the 15th and 16th centuries CE. Marathi came into prominence during the reign of Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630 – 1680). Shivaji led the Marathas in an independence struggle against the Muslim sultans of Bijapur and later the Mughal empire. The Marathas later established a loose-knit empire which extended north to Delhi, east to Orissa, and south to Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu by the mid-18th century.

Classification

Marathi is part of the Indo-Aryan grouping of the Indo-European family of languages.

Geographic distribution

Most speakers of Marathi live in the Indian state of Maharashtra. They also inhabit the neighboring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Ethnologue records speakers of Marathi in Israel as well, thanks to the emigration of the Bene Israel and other Jews from India, and in Mauritius.

Official status

Marathi serves as an official language of Maharashtra. The Constitution of India recognises it as one of the twenty-two official languages of the country.

Legal status in Karnataka

Dialects

Dialects of Marathi include Ahirani and Manadeshi. Konkani as spoken in Goa or Karwar was once considered a dialect of Marathi, but linguists now recognise it as a separate language. However, a dialect called "Malwani" from Sindhudurg District (in the Konkan region) has now emerged as a major dialect, the vehicle of many entertaining plays. The recent rise of "Malwani" can be traced to the play "Vastraharan", written by Gangaram Gawankar and staged by Machchhindra Kambli, which became a superhit and virtually gave birth to the genre of Malwani plays. For more on this refer to the literature section. The other dialects in Marathi are VarhaaDi (Vaidarbhi), spoken in the Vidarbha region, which includes Nagpur, Amravati, Pusad, Vashim, Yavatmal, Akola. The people of Marathwada - Beed, Parbhani, Latur, Aurangabad, Nanded - have a different accent. The Bene Israel Jews speak the dialect Judæo-Marathi.

Sounds

The supposedly purest form of Marathi is spoken in the historical city of Pune, which was the capital of the Peshwa rulers.

Grammar

Marathi, probably alone in the Indo-Aryan languages based on Sanskrit, partly preserves the Sanskrit locative case, thus: Sanskrit: prabhaat: dawn gR^iha: house prabhaate: at dawn gR^ihe: at/in the house Marathi: pahaaT: dawn ghar: house pahaaTe: at dawn gharI/gharaat/: at/in the house

Parts of speech

Marathi words can be classified in any of the following parts: # Naam (noun) # Sarva naam (pronoun) # VisheshaN (adjective) # Kriya VisheshaN (adverb) # Kriyapad (verb) # Avyay #
- Ubhayanvayi Avyay #
- Shabd Yogi Avyay #
- Keval Prayogi Avyay 1. Naam: The definition resembles the definition in English. There are 3 types of Naam - Vishesh Naam )specific name - like John, Ajit, Ram, Seeta etc. A name of a person comes into this category. 2. Sarv naam (the definition resembles the english Pronoun.) To (english:he), Ti(english:she), Te (english:they) etc. 3. VesheshaN: Naama baddal saangitalelya vishesh maahitila Vesheshan mhantaat (the more information given about the naam (noun) is called as Visheshan (adjective); additional information about the noun. e.g. To Hushaar mulgaa aahe. (english:He is a clever boy) To (english:He) - Sarvanaam (english:pronoun) Hushar (english:clever) - Vesheshan (english:adjective) Mulgaa (english:boy) - naam (english:noun) Aahe (english:is) - kriyapad (verb) 4. Kriya VesheshaN (adverb) - Kriyapada baddal vishesh maahiti saangaNaaRyaa shabdaalaa kriya visheshan ase mhanataat (the word giving more information about verb is known as Kriya Visheshan)

Sentence structure

The usual word order in a standard Marathi sentence is Subject Object Verb (SOV).

Vocabulary

Interestingly, Marathi uses the large number of modified Urdu, Persian and Arabic words. This came about because, for a significant period, Marathi came under the influence of Muslim and Maratha rulers who used words from these languages.

Word origins

Marathi has borrowed words from Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Hindi, Urdu, Arabic, Persian, Portuguese.
- Khurchii (chair) is derived from Arabic Kursi (chair).
- Jaahiraat (advertisement) is derived from Persian Zaahiraat (advertisement).
- Shiphaaras (recommendation) is derived from Urdu Sifarish (recommendation).
- Marjee (wish) is derived from Urdu Marzee (wish).
- Ishq (love), used in rural and theatrical versions of Marathi, is derived from Urdu Ishq (love).

Counting system

Positive integers: Distinct names for numbers 1-20 and composite/derived ones for those greater than 20. Frations: Distinct names for 1/4, 1/2, 3/4: 'paava', 'ardhaa', 'pauuNa'. 3 suffixes for (some, not all) fractions greater than 1: 'savvaa', 'saaDe', 'paavaNe'. Sepcial names for 3/2 and 5/2: 'diiDa' and 'aDicha'. Names for powers of 10: shambhara/she, hajaara/sahasra, laksha/laakha, koti, abja, kharva, nikharva, ...,, parardha. A positive integer is read by breaking it up from right to left (R->L), into parts each containing 2 digits, the only exception being the second part containing only 1 digit instead of 2. For example, 12,34,567 is read as '12 laksha 34 hajaara 5 she 67.

Writing system

Marathi uses the Devanagari script for writing. Get Marathi Writing simple software [http://www.baraha.com baraha], [http://www.balendu.com Madhyam], [http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Sanskrit/Itranslt.html Itranslator], [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/online/ ITRANS online], Yudit. Before the use of the printing press, writers in Marathi used a different script called the Modi script -- a cursive script designed for minimising the lifting of pen from paper while writing. However, with the advent of large-scale printing, Modi script fell into disuse, as it proved very difficult for type-setting. (See External Link). The courts in the olden days also used Persian-type scripts under the influence of Muslim and Maratha rulers. The oldest evidence of written Marathi comes from the base of a gigantic thousand year-old statue in the southern Indian town of Shravanabelagola. The inscription concerns the king Gangaraya who funded the effort, and his general Chamundaraya, who erected the statue for the king.

Some common phrases

Modern issues

Rules of orthography changed in 1960.

Old rules of orthography

New rules of orthography

The difference bewteen the rules

Addition of characters

Implications of the change for printing technology

Decreasing number of Marathi schools.

Unnecessary usage of Hindi and English words.

Unnecessary usage of Hindi syntax, especially in news.

Lack of a resource exhibiting standard usage.

Lack of a style manual.

Information technology issues

Text editors

Too many of them, with little compatibility.

Fonts

Unicode support for Devanagari characters

At the end of 2005 November, the situation is as follows. Reach: Only on Windows 2000+. Incomplete support on Linux. Access: Majority of computer users that need Unicode support for Devanagari characters still use Windows, not Linux. And majority of them do not have a version of Windows that supports Unicode. And many of the users who have such a support on their machines do not know how to enable it. Coverage: All characters are not supported. Each of the following issues arises due to an incorrect assupmtion that Marathi uses 'exactly' the same script as that of Hindi. The Unicode support has been designed keeping in mind Hindi, not Marathi. 1. 'chha' is displayed with a tail. Marathi 'chha' has no tail. Hindi uses 'chha' with a tail. 2. Horizontal joinary for 'rya' cannot be displayed. It is necessary to display it separately since the horizontal jonary and top joinary indicate different pronunciations. e.g. 'Acharyanni achryala bolavile' requires a top joinary in 'Acharyanni' and horizontal jonary in 'achryala'. 'rya' gets displayed with a nukta - a dot below the conjoined letter. A workaround developed at IIT Mumbai eliminates the nukta but pproduces a vertical jonary, not the intended horizontal one. Moreover, the workaround requires downloading a converter. Very few people are aware of this problem and still fewer know the workaround. Again, the reason is that Hindi does not use the horizontal joinary for 'rya'. 3. 'a' indicating a 'chandrakor' as in 'bat' (ba~t) does not get displayed, the one in 'ball' (bA~l) does get displayed. Marathi added 2 vowels, namely 'a~' and 'A~'. Hindi added only 'A~'.

Marathi literature

:Main article: Marathi literature Marathi has a long literary tradition, and a huge literature has grown up in Marathi in the last seven centuries. The first known major literature in Marathi is Adya Kavi Mukundraj. The saint-poet Dnyaneshwar ranks as the most important major literateur in the Marathi language. Dnyaneshwar wrote Bhaavarth-Dipika which is also known as Dnyaneshwari. Other prominent saint-poets include Eknath, Tukaram, and Namdev, who enriched Marathi from the grass-roots level. Marathi probably has the richest saint-literature of all Indian languages.

marathi authors

External links

- [http://www.marathimitra.com Learn to speak Marathi]
- [http://www.balendu.com Free Marathi Word Processor: Madhyam] developed by Balendu Sharma Dadhich
- [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=mar Ethnologue report for Marathi]
- [http://marathi.tv A network of links to explain the variety of Marathi lifestyle and culture]
- [http://www.maayboli.com Marathi- and Maharashtra-related resources], discussion forums, songs, and links.
- [http://marathimodi.tripod.com Modi Script online]
- [http://sanskrit.gde.to/marathi/ Marathi documents] and [http://sanskrit.gde.to/marathi/links.htm links]
- [http://www.bhashaindia.com Microsoft and Indian Languages]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/deonagari/ Devanagari]

Maharashtra Mandals

Maharashtrians or Marathis who leave Maharashtra for work/studies get together through "mandal" groups. Such Mandals around the world include:

Maharashtra Mandals in India

- [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/hydmarathi Hyderabad Marathis]
- [http://www.vizagcityonline.com/MaharashtraMandal Maharashtra Mandal Vizag]

Maharashtra Mandals outside India

=Maharashtra Mandals in UK

=
- [http://www.mmlondon.co.uk Maharashtra Mandal London]

=Maharashtra Mandals in US

=
- [http://www.mmatlanta.org Maharashtra Mandal Atlanta]
- [http://www.mmbayarea.org Maharashtra Mandal Bay Area]
- [http://www.bmmandal.com/ Bloomington-Normal Marathi Mandal, IL, USA]
- [http://www.mahamandal-chicago.org/ Maharashtra Mandal Chicago]
- [http://www.dfwmm.org Dallas-Fort Worth Maharashtra Mandal]
- [http://www.mmdet.org Maharashtra Mandal Detroit]
- [http://www.hmmhouston.org Houston Maharashtra Mandal]
- [http://www.mmla.org Maharashtra Mandal Los Angeles]
- [http://www.bmmonline.org/ North American Maharashtra Mandal]
- [http://www.maharashtramandal.org/milwaukee Maharashtra Mandal Milwaukee]
- [http://www.maharashtramandalny.com Maharashtra Mandal New York]
- [http://www.oregonmm.org Oregon Marathi Mandal]
- [http://www.mmpgh.org Maharashtra Mandal Pittsburgh]
- [http://www.seattlemm.org Maharashtra Mandal Seattle]
- [http://www.marathi.com/ Maharashtra Mandal Washington DC]
- [http://www.marathiassociationofmn.com/ Marathi Association of Minnesota]

=Maharashtra Mandals in Middle East

=Maharashtra Mandals in other countries

=
- [http://www.geocities.com/darmarathi/ Maharashtra Mandal Dar es Salaam, Tanzania]
- [http://www.marathi.org.au/ Marathi Mandal Sydney]

=Maharashtra Mandals yet to be classified

=
- [http://www.columbusmm.org Maharashtra Mandal Columbus]
- [http://www.nemm.org New England Marathi Mandal]
- [http://www.maharashtra-mandal-Singapore.org Maharashtra Mandal Singapore]
- [http://www.mmtb.itgo.com/ Marathi Mandal Tampa Bay] Category:Indo-Aryan languages Category:Languages of India ms:Bahasa Marathi ja:マラーティー語 th:ภาษามราฐี

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

States and territories of India

India is subdivided into twenty-eight states, six union territories and the National Capital Territory.

History

Pre-independence

British India, which included all of modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan, but not Ceylon, was made up of two types of territorial divisions, provinces and Princely States.

Provinces

Provinces of India were ruled directly by British officials; a governor, chief commissioner, or Administrator, who were appointed by the Viceroy. By 1947 British India had fifteen provinces: Ajmer-Merwara, Assam, Baluchistan, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces and Berar, Coorg, Delhi, Madras, Northwest Frontier, Orissa, Punjab, Sind, and United Provinces.

Princely States

Princely states were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who acknowledged British sovereignty in return for local autonomy and British India had hundreds of princely states, which varied greatly in size, from Hyderabad, with a population of over ten million, to tiny states. Most of the princely states were under the authority of a British political agent responsible to the governor of a province. Two divisions, the Central India Agency and Rajputana Agency, consisted of numerous princely states which were governed by a political agent appointed by the Governor-General of India, rather than the governor of a province, and the four largest princely states, Hyderabad, Baroda, Mysore, and Jammu and Kashmir, were directly under the authority of the Governor-General.

Other European Possessions

- Portuguese India included the coastal enclaves of Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli,
- French India included five enclaves, Pondichery, Chandernagore, Yanaon, Karikal, and Mahe.
- Danish India (integrated into British India prior to independence

Post-independence

With the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, provinces and princely states were assigned to one country or the other, with two provinces, Punjab and Bengal, partitioned between India and Pakistan along religious lines. Hyderabad's Muslim ruler attempted to remain independent, but the Indian army intervened and Hyderabad was annexed to India. India and Pakistan contested for control of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; the state had a Muslim majority, but its Hindu ruler acceded to India. The period from independence in 1947 to the beginning of the Indian republic in 1950 saw the consolidation of the former princely states into new provinces, usually governed by a rajpramukh, (governor) appointed by the Governor-General of India. In 1950, the Indian constitution took effect, the office of the Governor-General was abolished, and India created several different categories of states. Part A states, which were the former provinces, were ruled by an elected governor and state legislature. The nine Part A states were Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh (formerly Central Provinces and Berar), Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh (formerly United Provinces). The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of princely states, governed by a rajpramukh. They were Hyderabad, Saurashtra, Mysore, Travancore-Cochin, Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), and Rajasthan. The ten Part C states included both former princely states and provinces. They were governed by a chief commissioner. The Part C states included Delhi, Kutch, Himachal Pradesh, Bilaspur, Coorg, Bhopal, Manipur, Ajmer, and Tripura. Jammu and Kashmir had special status until 1957. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands was established as a union territory, ruled by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by the central Indian government. The French enclave of Chandernagore voted to join India in 1949, and officially became part of India in 1952, becoming part of the state of West Bengal in 1954. The remainder of French India, Pondichery, Yanaon, Karikal, and Mahe, were administered by India after 1954, formally becoming a union territory in 1962. Dadra and Nagar Haveli was occupied by India 1954, and Goa, Daman, and Diu in 1961, and they subsequently became union territories. In 1953, the Telugu-speaking northern portion of Madras state voted to become the new state of Andhra Pradesh, the first of India's linguistic states.

The States Reorganization Act of 1956

In 1956, the States Reorganization Act took effect, which erased the distinction between parts A, B, and C states, and reorganized state boundaries along linguistic lines. The new states, mostly the former Part A states, were Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore (later renamed Karnataka), Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Pondichery, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Laccadive, Mincoy, and Amandivi Islands became union territories. The remainder of the states were merged into the new states or union territories. Several new states and union territories have been created out of existing states since 1956. Bombay State was split into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on May 1 1960. Haryana was created in 1966 out of Punjab. The union territories of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland were created out of Assam. In 2000 three new states were created; Jharkhand was created out of the southern districts of Bihar, Chhattisgarh was created out of eastern Madhya Pradesh, and Uttaranchal was created out of northwestern Uttar Pradesh. The Kingdom of Sikkim was annexed to India as a state in 1975. In addition, several union territories have become states, namely Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.

Maharashtra

Maharashtra (महाराष्ट्र in Devanagari) is India's third largest state in terms of area and second largest in terms of population after Uttar Pradesh. It is bordered by the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's western coast. Mumbai (Bombay), India's largest city, is the capital of Maharashtra.

Origin of the name

Maharashtra was known as "Rashtra" in the Rig Veda, "Rashtrik" in Ashoka's inscriptions, and "Maha rashtra" afterwards, as attested by Huein-Tsang and other travellers. The name appears to be derived from "Maharashtri" in an old form of Prakrit, an ancient Indian language. However, there are other theories put forward by different schools of thought: one version suggests the derivation of the name from "land of the Mahars and the Rattas". Another possible derivation is believed to be the corruption of the term "Maha Kantara", which means "Great Forest". Both these theories did not carry much weight, as can be seen from the name of Maharashtra.

History

Archaeological evidence indicates that Maharashtra was inhabited since the Palaeolithic era. Not much is known about Maharashtra's early history, and its recorded history dates back to the 3rd century BC, with the use the Maharastri language, a Prakrit corruption of Sanskrit. Later, Maharashtra became a part of the Magadha empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor Ashoka. The port town of Sopara, just north of present day Mumbai, was the centre of ancient India's commerce, with links to Eastern Africa, Mesopotamia, Aden and Cochin. With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahanas between 230 BC and 225 AD. During the reign of the Vakatakas (250 AD–525 AD), Vidarbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra, come under their rule. During this period, development of arts, religion and technology flourished. By the 6th century, Maharashtra came under the reign of the Chalukyas. Later, in 753, the region was governed by Rashtrakutas, an empire that spread over most of peninsula India. In 973, the Rashtrakutas were overthrown by the Chalukayas, who ruled parts of Maharashtra until 1189 when it came under the hands of the Yadavas of Deogiri. Maharashtra came under Islamic influence for the first time after the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji, and later Muhammad bin Tughluq appropriated parts of the Deccan in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Tughlaqs in 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate took over, governing the region for the next 150 years. By the 16th century, central Maharashtra was ruled by numerous autonomous Islamic kingdoms that owed allegiance to the Mughals, while coastal region was annexed by the Portuguese, in their quest to seize control of the spice trade. By the early 17th century the Maratha Empire began to take root. The Marathas, native to western Maharashtra, were led by Raje Shivaji Bhosle, who was crowned king in 1674. Under his successors, the Maratha Empire reached their zenith, encompassing almost the entire Deccan, central India and extending into parts of modern day Pakistan and Bangladesh . After defeating the Mughals in 1707, the Marathas became the dominant rulers of India. With death of Shahu in 1749, Peshwa became head of Maratha empire. After suffering a heavy defeat to the Afghan chieftain Ahmad Shah Abdali, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Confederacy broke into regional kingdoms like Gwalior, Poona, Indore etc. With the arrival and subsequent involvement of the British East India Company in Indian politics, the two were involved in three major battles, culminating in the annexation of Peshwa ruled territory in Maharashtra in 1819, which heralded the end of the Maratha empire. The British governed the region as part of the Bombay Presidency, which spanned an area from Karachi in Pakistan to most of the northern Deccan. The British rule was marked by social reforms, an improvement in infrastructure as well revolts due to their discriminatory policies. At the beginning of the 20th century, a non-violent struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi began to take shape. In 1942, the Quit India Movement was called by Gandhi which was marked by a non-violent civil disobedience movement and strikes. After India's independence in 1947, independent princely states in central India joined the Indian Union. In 1956, Bombay state came into existence which merged the princely states of central India into Bombay Presidency. On 1960-05-01, the state of Maharashtra came into existence, carved out of the Marathi-speaking territory of Bombay state. Favourable economic policies in the 1970s led to Maharashtra becoming India's leading industrial state. See also:
- Timeline of Maharashtra history
- History of India
- Social Reform Movement in Maharashtra

Geography

Maharashtra encompasses an area of 308,000 km² (119,000 mi²), the third largest in India after Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Maharashtra is bordered by the states of Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, Karnataka to the south and Goa to the southwest. The state of Gujarat lies to the northwest, with the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli sandwiched between the borders. The Arabian Sea makes up Maharashtra's west coast. The Western Ghats are a hilly range which runs parallel to the coast at an average elevation of 1,200 metres (4,000 feet)). To the west of these hills lie the Konkan coastal plains which are 50–80 kilometres in width. To the east of the Ghats lies the flat Deccan Plateau. The Western Ghats form one of the three watersheds of India of which many South Indian rivers originate from. To the north of the state, near the Madhya Pradesh border, lies the Satpura Range. The Western Ghats form the source major rivers of South India, notable the Godavari and the Krishna, two major rivers of Deccan India. The rivers, along with their tributaries flow eastwards, irrigating most of central and eastern Maharashtra emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The Ghats are also the source of numerous small rivers which flow westwards emptying into the Arabian Sea. To the north of the state, the rivers Tapi and Narmada flow westwards, irrigating most of northern Maharashtra. The plateau is composed of black basalt soil, rich in humus.

Economy

Maharashtra's is India's leading industrial state contributing 23% of India's industrial output. 64.14% of the people are employed in agriculture and allied activities. Major industries in Maharashtra include chemical and allied products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum and allied products. Other important industries include metal products, wine, jewellery, pharmaceuticals, engineering goods, machine tools, steel and iron castings and plastic wares. Food crops include mangoes, grapes, bananas, oranges, wheat, rice, jowar, bajra, and pulses. Cash crops include groundnut, cotton, sugarcane, turmeric, and tobacco. The net irrigated area totals 33,500 square kilometres. Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra houses the headquarters of almost all major banks, financial institutions, insurance companies and mutual funds. Within Mumbai is located Bollywood, the epicentre of India's Hindi film and television industry. The Bombay Stock Exchange, India's oldest and largest stock exchange is located in the city. After successes in the information technology in the neighbouring states, Maharashtra has set up software parks in Pune, Mumbai, and Nashik.