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Saxonburg, Pennsylvania

Saxonburg, Pennsylvania

Saxonburg is a borough located in Butler County, Pennsylvania. As of the 2000 census, the borough had a total population of 1,629.

History

Saxonburg was founded in 1832 by John A. Roebling, who is known for the invention of wire rope and the design of the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City. Roebling had set out with his brother Karl and a group of pioneers from Germany in 1831 to flee the general unrest and oppression in Europe. The two men, along with a handful of the people who accompanied them on the trans-Atlantic journey secured 1582 acres (6.4 km²) of land on October 28, 1831 from Mrs. Sarah Collins. (Historic Saxonburg and Its Neighbors, Ralph Goldinger, ISBN 1-55856-043-2) In 1946, Fred Seitz, then head of the physics department at Carnegie Tech, brought Ed Creutz (who later succeeded Seitz as department head), Jack Fox (who succeeded Creutz as department head), Roger Sutton (who succeeded Creutz as director of the Saxonburg Nuclear Research Center) and Bert Corben to Carnegie Tech to establish an important nuclear physics research program. Through a series of initiatives, a leading-edge 450 MeV proton synchrocyclotron was built at the Nuclear Research Center near Saxonburg in southern Butler County. The research program developed at Saxonburg flourished up to the mid-1970s when the then-obsolete accelerator was dismantled. The legacy of that work remains, in the form of vigorous, medium and high energy nuclear and particle physics research programs carried on by Carnegie Mellon groups at various national and international accelerator laboratories. II-VI Corporation now occupies the old Nuclear Research Center site in Saxonburg. As of 1997, the original laboratory building remains, more or less intact, as does the old dormitory/cafeteria/lounge building, which is now used for storage. The most obvious changes are that the accelerator and attendant shielding are gone, along with the farmhouse and quonset huts; the high-bay area has been converted to three levels of office and laboratory space; and there has been considerable new construction, so that the original lab building is now but a fraction of the total facility.

Geography

Saxonburg is located at 40°45'15" North, 79°48'56" West (40.754040, -79.815619). According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of 2.3 km² (0.9 mi²). 2.3 km² (0.9 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 1,629 people, 655 households, and 391 families residing in the borough. The population density is 714.7/km² (1,852.8/mi²). There are 713 housing units at an average density of 312.8/km² (811.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the borough is 99.32% White, 0.25% African American, 0.00% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.31% from other races, and 0.12% from two or more races. 1.53% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 655 households out of which 22.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.8% are married couples living together, 10.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.2% are non-families. 35.3% of all households are made up of individuals and 17.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.13 and the average family size is 2.75. In the borough the population is spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 21.9% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 34.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 50 years. For every 100 females there are 72.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 69.0 males. The median income for a household in the borough is $32,159, and the median income for a family is $41,875. Males have a median income of $37,500 versus $24,135 for females. The per capita income for the borough is $21,931. 9.6% of the population and 7.8% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 13.6% of those under the age of 18 and 8.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links

- [http://everything2.org/index.pl?node_id=1391171 Everything2 writeup]
- [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:X9zXksmqsjEJ:info.phys.cmu.edu/welcome/news/Interactions/1997/Saxonburg50th.html+saxonburg+cmu&hl=en Google cache of CMU nuclear research article on Saxonburg] Category:Butler County, Pennsylvania Category:Boroughs in Pennsylvania

Butler County, Pennsylvania

Butler County is a county located in the state of Pennsylvania. As of 2000, the population is 174,083. Butler County was created on March 12, 1800 from part of Allegheny County and named in honor of General Richard Butler. Its county seat is Butler ⁶. it is part of the Pittsburgh Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Geography

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,058 km² (795 mi²). 2,042 km² (789 mi²) of it is land and 16 km² (6 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.79% water.

Demographics

As of the census ² of 2000, there are 174,083 people, 65,862 households, and 46,827 families residing in the county. The population density is 85/km² (221/mi²). There are 69,868 housing units at an average density of 34/km² (89/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 97.83% White, 0.79% Black or African American, 0.09% Native American, 0.56% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.17% from other races, and 0.54% from two or more races. 0.58% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 65,862 households out of which 32.90% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.80% are married couples living together, 8.10% have a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% are non-families. 24.20% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.40% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.55 and the average family size is 3.04. In the county, the population is spread out with 24.60% under the age of 18, 8.80% from 18 to 24, 29.40% from 25 to 44, 23.00% from 45 to 64, and 14.30% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 95.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.80 males.

Highlights and History

Butler County is named after Richard Butler (general), a hero of the American Revolution. It is the location of Moraine State Park, with the 3,000 acre glacial lake, Lake Arthur. Lake Arthur is used for fishing and sailing, and the surrounding park is used for hiking and hunting. Some famous inventions and discoveries were made in Butler County. It was in Saxonburg, Butler County, that the designer of the Brooklyn Bridge, John Roebling, invented his revolutionary "wire rope." At what is now known as Oil Creek, Butler County resident William Smith and Edwin Drake first proved that oil counld be tapped from underground for consistent supply. Butler County has also been lived in and traveled through by famous politicians. George Washington passed through during the French and Indian Wars. Butler's only U.S. Senator ever, Walter Lowrie, built a home in 1828 that still stands today behind the Butler County Courthouse. Butler's highest ranked federal official ever is William J. Perry, Secretary of Defense under President Bill Clinton from 1994-1997. He graduated from Butler High in 1945.

Municipalities

Cities

- Butler

Education

Colleges and Universities

- Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania at [http://www.sru.edu/ sru.edu]
- Butler County Community College (Pennsylvania) at [http://www.bc3.edu/ bc3.edu]

Technical Schools

- Butler County Vo-Tech at [http://www.bcvt.tec.pa.us/ bcvt.tec.pa.us]

Butler School District

- Butler High School at [http://www.butler.k12.pa.us/ butler.k12.pa.us]

Moniteau School District

- Moniteau High School at [http://www.moniteau.k12.pa.us/ moniteau.k12.pa.us]

News

- Butler Eagle daily newspaper Category:Pennsylvania counties

John A. Roebling

John Augustus Roebling (born Johann August Röbling, June 12, 1806 in Mühlhausen - July 22, 1869) was a German-born civil engineer famous for his wire rope suspension bridge designs. He was educated in public schools of Muhlhausen and at the Royal Polytechnic School in Berlin where he studied architecture and engineering, bridge construction, hydraulics, languages, and philosophy, graduating in 1826. In 1831, Roebling left Germany with his brother Karl to flee the general unrest and oppression in Europe. The two men, along with a handful of the people who accompanied them on the trans-Atlantic journey, purchased 1582 acres (6.4 km²) of land on October 28, 1831, in Butler County, Pennsylvania and established a settlement, called Saxonburg. His first engineering work in America was devoted to improving river navigation and canal building. He spent three years surveying for railway lines across the Allegheny Mountains, from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh, for the state of Pennsylvania. In 1841, at his workshop in Saxonburg, he invented wire rope, which was the basis of his commercial success, and would be used in all of his bridge designs. He had been fascinated with the idea of suspension bridges since his college days, and wrote his graduation thesis on the subject. In 1844, Roebling won a bid to replace the wooden canal aqueduct across the Allegheny River. His design encompassed seven spans of 163 feet, each consisting of a wooden trunk to hold the water supported by a continuous wire cable on each side. That the design was successful was especially satisfying since a number of professional engineers had scoffed at the notion of a suspension aqueduct. This was followed in 1845 by building a suspension bridge over the Monongahela River at Pittsburgh. In 1848, Roebling undertook the construction of four suspension aqueducts on the Delaware and Hudson Canal. During this period, he moved to Trenton, New Jersey. Roebling's next project, starting in 1851, was a railroad bridge connecting the New York Central and Great Western Railway of Canada over the Niagara River, which would take four years. The bridge, with a clear span of 825 feet, is supported by four, ten-inch wire cables, and has two levels, one for vehicles and one for rail traffic. While the Niagara bridge was being built, Roebling undertook another railway suspension bridge, across the Kentucky River on the Southern Railroad from Cincinnati to Chattanooga, which required a clear span of 1,224 feet. The anchorage and stone towers were completed, and the cable wire delivered along with the material for the superstructure, when the railway company collapsed: the bridge was left uncompleted. In 1858, Roebling started another suspension bridge at Pittsburgh, this one of 1,030 feet, divided into two spans of 344 feet each, and two side spans of 171 feet each. The outbreak of the American Civil War brought a temporary halt to Roebling's work. But during the war, in 1863, building resumed on a bridge over the Ohio River at Cincinnati which he had started in 1856 that was stopped due to financing difficulties; the bridge was finished in 1867. The Cincinnati-Covington Bridge, later named after him John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge, would be the world's longest suspension bridge until completion of the Brooklyn Bridge. In 1867, Roebling started design work on Brooklyn Bridge spanning the East River in New York. He was overseeing the initial construction when his foot was crushed by a ferry; he died sixteen days later of tetanus. His son Washington Roebling continued his work; his great-grandson, Donald Roebling was a noted philanthropist and inventor who devised the amphtrack.

Projects

- 1844 Allegheny Aqueduct Bridge Pittsburgh, Pa. 162' spans
- 1846 Smithfield Street Bridge Pittsburgh, Pa. 188' spans
- 1848 Lackawaxen Aqueduct two spans of 115 feet each, and two 7-inch cables.
- 1849 Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct 4 spans of 134 feet each, and two 8-inch cables.
- 1850 High Falls Aqueduct one span of 145 feet, and two 8 1/2-inch cables [http://www.canalmuseum.org/history.htm D & H Canal Museum]
- 1850 Neversink Aqueduct one span of 170 feet, and two 8 1/2-inch cables
- 1854 Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge New York-Canada 821' span
- 1859 Allegheny Bridge Pittsburgh, Pa. 344' spans
- 1867 John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge - spanning the Ohio River, 1,000 feet long with a deck clearance of 100 feet
- 1869 Waco Suspension Bridge 475 foot span Waco, Texas
- 1883 Brooklyn Bridge NYC-Brooklyn, N.Y. 1595' span

External links

- [http://www.inventionfactory.com/history/RHAgen/jarbio.html Invention Factory: Detailed biography]
- [http://en.structurae.de/persons/data/index.cfm?ID=d000030 Structurae: John A. Roebling]

References

Historic Saxonburg and Its Neighbors, Ralph Goldinger, ISBN 1-55856-043-2 Roebling, John Augustus Roebling, John Augustus Roebling, John Augustus

Brooklyn Bridge

: This article is about the bridge in New York City. For the rock band, see Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge. Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge.]] Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge] Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge The Brooklyn Bridge (originally the New York and Brooklyn Bridge), one of the oldest suspension bridges in the United States, stretches 6516 feet (1834 m) over the East River from Manhattan to Brooklyn. On completion, it was the largest suspension bridge in the world and the first steel-wire suspension bridge.

History

Construction began in 1869. The Brooklyn Bridge was completed fourteen years later and was opened for use on May 24, 1883. On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed. The bridge's main span over the East River is 1,595 feet (486 meters). The bridge cost $18 million to build and approximately 27 people died during its construction. A week after the opening, on May 30, a rumor that the Bridge was going to collapse caused a stampede which crushed twelve people. At the time it opened, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world — fifty percent longer than any previously built — and has become a treasured landmark. Additionally, for several years the towers were the tallest structures in the Western Hemisphere. Since the 1980s, it has been floodlit at night to display its architectural features. The architecture style is Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers. The bridge was designed by an architectural firm owned by John Augustus Roebling in Trenton, New Jersey. Roebling and his firm had built smaller suspension bridges, such as the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge in Cincinnati, Ohio and the Waco Suspension Bridge in Waco, Texas, that served as the engineering prototypes for the final design. As construction was beginning, Roebling's foot was seriously injured in an accident; within a few weeks, he died of tetanus. His son, Washington, succeeded him, but was stricken with caisson disease (decompression sickness), due to working in compressed air with the sandhogs, and was only capable of limited speech or movement. Washington's wife, Emily Warren Roebling, trained herself in engineering so she could communicate his wishes to the builders. When the bridge opened she was also the first person to cross it. Washington Roebling was unable to leave his home and watched the construction through a telescope. At the time the bridge was built, the aerodynamics of bridge building had not been worked out. Bridges were not tested in wind tunnels until the 1950s - well after the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in the 1940s. It is therefore fortunate that the open truss structure supporting the deck is by its nature less subject to aerodynamic problems. Roebling designed a bridge and truss system that was six times as strong as he thought it needed to be. Because of this, the Brooklyn Bridge is still standing when many of the bridges built around the same time have vanished into history and have been replaced. This is also in spite of the nefarious substitution of inferior quality wire in the cabling supplied by a contractor - by the time it was discovered it was too late to replace the cabling that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge four rather than six times as strong as necessary, so it was eventually allowed to stand. At various times, the bridge has carried horses and trolley traffic; at present, it has six lanes for motor vehicles, and a separate level for pedestrians and bicycles. The two inside lanes of the lower level once carried elevated trains of the from Brooklyn points to a terminal at Park Row. Streetcars ran on what are now the two center lanes (shared with other traffic) until the stopped using the bridge in 1944, when they moved to the protected center tracks. In 1954, the streetcars also stopped running, and the bridge was rebuilt to carry six lanes of automobile traffic. The bridge tracks were planned to connect to what is now the Nassau Street Line subway at Chambers Street to form part of the never-finished Centre Street Loop. The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 17, 1977 and on March 24, 1983 the bridge was designated a National Historic Engineering Landmark.

1994 Terrorist Attack

On March 1, 1994, Lebanese-born Rashid Baz opened fire on a van carrying members of the Lubavitch Orthodox-Jewish sect, striking 16-year old student Ari Halberstam. Halberstam died 5 days later from his wounds. Baz was apparently acting out of revenge for the Hebron massacre of 29 Muslims by Baruch Goldstein that had taken place days earlier on February 25, 1994. Baz was convicted of murder and sentenced to a 141-year prison term. After initially classifying the murder as one committed out of road rage, the FBI reclassified the case in 2000 as a terrorist attack. The entrance ramp to the bridge on the Manhattan side was named the Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp in honor of the victim. The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge is detailed in the book The Great Bridge by David McCullough and in a PBS film by Ken Burns.

Cultural significance

Ken Burns Contemporaries marvelled at what technology was capable of and the bridge became a symbol of the optimism of the time. John Perry Barlow wrote in the late 20th century of the "literal and genuinely religious leap of faith" embodied in the Brooklyn Bridge . . . the Brooklyn Bridge required of its builders faith in their ability to control technology." [http://ftp.eff.org/pub/Publications/John_Perry_Barlow/HTML/brooklyn_bridge.html] References to "selling the Brooklyn Bridge" abound in American culture, sometimes as examples of rural gullibility but more often in connection with an idea that strains credulity. For example, "If you believe that, I have a wonderful bargain for you . . ." However, see also Victor Lustig. In his sophomore book The Bridge, Hart Crane begins with a poem entitled "Proem: To Brooklyn Bridge." The bridge was a source of inspiration for Crane and he owned different apartments specifically to have different views of the bridge. Hart Crane A TV show called Brooklyn Bridge aired in prime time from 1991 through 1993. The bridge was featured in the beginning of Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow. The Brooklyn Bridge is featured in Disney's Oliver & Company as the bridge itself but with the automobile lanes covered. In the 1998 American version of Godzilla, Godzilla attacked the bridge, destoying its second and last towers as well as its train tracks. Also in 1998, a tidal wave caused by an asteroid crashing into New York Harbor destroyed the bridge in the film Deep Impact. The Brooklyn Bridge is featured at the end of Martin Scorsese's Gangs of New York. The bridge is featured in the Def Jam Fight For New York trailer. It can be destroyed in Godzilla: Save the Earth for the PS2 and Xbox video game systems. The bridge is part of the cover of Twin Towers. The bridge is featured in SimCity 3000 as the bridge but with opens, and in SimCity 4: Rush Hour as the "Medium Suspension" bridge type for avenues and highways. A dramatisation of the challenges faced by the Roebling family during construction of the bridge are portrayed in the BBC documentary series Seven Wonders of the Industrial World. The bridge is also featured in the 2004 film Team America: World Police as the bridge itself. Category:Bridges in New York City Category:Suspension bridges Category:New York City landmarks Category:National Register of Historic Places Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks

External links

- [http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/motorist/bridges.html Bridges at New York City DOT]
- [http://www.nycroads.com/crossings/brooklyn/ NYCroads.com - Brooklyn Bridge]
- [http://www.transalt.org/bridges/brooklyn.html Transportation Alternatives Fiboro Bridges - Brooklyn Bridge]
- [http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0000011 Structurae: Brooklyn Bridge]
- [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&dbname=cbsarticles&key2=brooklyn&action=searchdbdisplay The story of Brooklyn Bridge] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum]
- [http://www.dualmoments.com/Panorama/1903brooklyn.htm Panorama of Brooklyn Bridge 1899 - Extreme Photo Constructions]
- [http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Brooklyn_Bridge.html Great Buildings entry] for the Brooklyn Bridge
- [http://www.asce.org/history/brdg_brooklyn.html American Society of Civil Engineers]
- [http://www.earthcam.com/panasonic/new_york_bb.html Brooklyn Bridge Webcam]
- [http://catskillarchive.com/rrextra/bbpage.Html Railroad Extra - Brooklyn Bridge and its Railway]
- [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Brooklyn%20Bridge%20et%20vue%20du%20Pont/index.html gallery of photographs]

1946

1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. (see link for calendar)

Events

January

- January 4 - Theodore Schurch becomes the last person to be executed for offences committed under the Treachery Act of 1940
- January 7 - Allied recognize Austrian republic with 1937 borders - the country is divided into four occupation zones
- January 10 - First meeting of the United Nations
- January 11 - Enver Hoxha declares the people's republic of Albania with himself as prime minister.
- January 11 - Porfirio Barba-Jacob's ashes go back to Colombia.
- January 16 - Charles de Gaulle resigns as a head of a French provisional government
- January 17
- The UN Security Council holds its first session
- Senator Dennis Chavez (D-NM) calls for a vote on an FEPC bill which called for the end to discrimination in the work place. A filibuster prevents it from passing.
- January 20 - Charles De Gaulle resigns as president of France
- January 25 - The United Mine Workers rejoins the American Federation of Labor
- January 28 - Bluenose founders on a Haitian reef
- January 29 - CIA established
- January 31 - Yugoslavia's new constitution, modeling the Soviet Union, establishes six constituent republics (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia).

February

February
- February 1 - Trygve Lie of Norway is picked to be the first United Nations Secretary General.
- February 2 - Kingdom of Hungary becomes a republic.
- February 14 - The Bank of England nationalized
- February 14 - ENIAC (for "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer"), the first general-purpose electronic computer, is unveiled at the University of Pennsylvania
- February 15 - Canada indicts 22 communist agents.
- February 24 - Juan Peron elected president of Argentina
- February 28 - In Philadelphia, strikers of General Electric and police clash

March

- March 2 - British troops withdraw from Iran according to treaty - Soviets do not.
- March 2 - Ho Chi Minh elected the President of North Vietnam
- March 4 - C.G.E. Mannerheim resigns from the post of president of Finland
- March 5 - In his speech in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill talks about Iron Curtain.
- March 6 - Vietnam War: Ho Chi Minh signs an agreement with France which recognizes Vietnam as an autonomous state in the Indochinese Federation and the French Union. David Gilmour, the guitarist of Pink Floyd is born.
- March 9 - Juho Kusti Paasikivi becomes president of Finland
- March 10 - British troops begin withdrawal from Lebanon
- March 15 - Clement Attlee promises independence to India as soon as they can agree on constitution
- March 19 - Soviet Union and Switzerland reform diplomatic relations.
- March 19 - French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Réunion become overseas départements of France
- March 22 - Transjordan gains independence
- March 29 - Gold Coast has an African majority in the parliament

April

- April 1 - 14-meter high tsunami strikes Hilo, Hawaii - 173 dead, thousands injured.
- April 1 - Formation of the Malayan Union.
- April 1 - Singapore becomes a Crown colony
- April 3 - Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed outside Manila in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March.
- April 7 - Syria's independence from France is officially recognised
- April 10 - In Japan, women vote for the first time in parliamentarian elections
- April 18 - USA recognizes Josip Broz Tito's government in Yugoslavia
- April 18 - Last meeting of League of Nations – it transfers its mission to United Nations and disbands itself.
- April 29 - Trial against war criminals begin in Tokyo – accused include Hideki Tojo, Shigenori Togo and Hiroshi Oshima.

May

- May 4 - Paris Wine Tasting of 1976 revolutionizes wine world.
- May 2 - Six prisoners unsuccessfully try to escape from the Alcatraz prison island
- May 7 - Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering (later renamed Sony) is founded with about 20 employees.
- May 9 - King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy abdicates, and is succeeded by his son Humbert II.
- May 10 - Nehru elected leader of the Congress Party in India
- May 20 - In Britain, the House of Commons decides to nationalize mines.
- May 21 - Radiation accident in Los Alamos laboratory; Dr Louis Slotin saves his coworkers but receives a fatal dose of radiation. Incident is initially classified
- May 22 - Kingdom of Transjordan founded.
- May 25 - The parliament of Transjordan makes emir Abdullah their king.
- May 31 - Greece referendum supports return of monarchy

June-July

- June 2 - In a referendum Italians decide to turn Italy from a monarchy into a Republic. After this referendum the king of Italy Umberto II di Savoia was exiled. Women vote for the first time.
- June 6 - The Basketball Association of America is formed in New York City.
- June 8 - In Indonesia, Sukarno incites his supporters to fight Dutch colonial occupation
- June 9 - In Thailand, king Rama IX accedes the throne.
- June 10 - Italy declared republic
- June 13 - Humbert II of Italy leaves the country and goes into exile in Portugal; Alcide de Gasperi becomes head of state.
- June 17 - Tornado on the Detroit river - 17 dead
- July 4 - After over 425 years of Western Dominance , the Philippines achieves full independence.
- July 5 - Bikinis go on sale in Paris
- July 7 - Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini becomes the first American saint to be canonized.
- July 21 - Irgun bomb explodes in Jerusalem.
- July 22 - King David Hotel bombing: Irgun bombs King David Hotel in Jerusalem, headquarters of the British civil and military administration killing 90.
- July 25 - Nuclear testing: In the first underwater test of the atomic bomb, the surplus USS Saratoga is sunk near Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean when the United States detonates the "Baker Day" device.
- July 25 - At Club 500 in Atlantic City, New Jersey, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis stage their first show as a comedy team.

August-November

November
- August 19 - Violence between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta – 3000 dead.
- August 25 - Ben Hogan wins PGA Championship
- September 4 - Street violence between Muslims and Hindus in Bombay.
- September 8 - Bulgaria declared a People's Republic after a referendum – King Simeon II leaves.
- September 28 - George II of Greece returns to Athens
- October 2 - Communists take over in Bulgaria
- October 13 - France adopts the constitution of the Fourth Republic.
- October 15 - Nuremberg Trials: Founder of the Gestapo and recently convicted Nazi war criminal, Hermann Göring, poisons himself hours before his scheduled execution.
- October 23 - United Nations' first meeting in Long Island.
- November 8 - Vietnamese riot in Haiphong and clash with French troops. French cruiser Suffren opens fire. 6000 Vietnamese killed.
- November 12 - Truce between Indonesian nationalist troops and Dutch army in Indonesia.
- November 12 - A branch of the Exchange National Bank in Chicago, Illinois opens the first ten drive-up teller windows.
- November 15 - Netherlands recognized Republic of Indonesia.
- November 19 - Afghanistan, Iceland and Sweden joins the United Nations
- November 27 - Cold War: Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appeals to the United States and the Soviet Union to end nuclear testing and to start nuclear disarmament, stating that such an action would "save humanity from the ultimate disaster."

December

- December 11 - UNICEF founded.
- December 12 - United Nations severs relations with Franco's Spain and recommends the member countries to sever diplomatic relations
- December 12 - Leon Blum founds a government of socialist parties in France
- December 19 - Martial law in Vietnam
- December 22 - Havana Conference begins between US organized crime bosses in Havana, Cuba
- December 24 - France's Fourth Republic founded
- December 26 - Flamingo Hotel opens in Las Vegas.
- December 31 - President Harry Truman officially proclaims an end of hostilities in World War II.

Unknown dates

- The 20mm M61 Vulcan gatling gun is invented.
- Devil's Island penal colony closes permanently.
- Female suffrage in Belgium, Romania, Yugoslavia, Argentina and Canadian province of Quebec. First female police officers in Korea and Japan.
- Chinese Civil War intensifies between Kuomintang and Communist Party of China.
- First Tupperware sold in department and hardware stores.
- Grantley Adams becomes the premier of Barbados.
- Alcatraz Island prison riot.
- The British government takes emergency powers to deal with the balance-of-payments crisis.
- Eva Perón tours Spain, Italy and France on behalf of Argentina, a circuit called the Rainbow Tour.
- Breathalyzer machine for estimating blood alcohol concentration was invented.
- Howard Hyde Russell established the Anti-Saloon League.
- George Orwell writes Politics and the English Language

Births

January

- January 3 - John Paul Jones, English bassist (Led Zeppelin)
- January 5 - Diane Keaton, American actress
- January 6 - Syd Barrett, English guitarist and singer
- January 8 - Stanton Peele, American psychologist
- January 8 - Robby Krieger, American musician (The Doors)
- January 11 - Naomi Judd, American singer
- January 11 - John Piper, American theologian
- January 12 - George Duke, American musician
- January 14 - Harold Shipman, British serial killer
- January 16 - Kabir Bedi, Indian actor
- January 16 - Katia Ricciarelli, Italian singer
- January 18 - Joseph Deiss, Swiss Federal Councilor
- January 19 - Dolly Parton, American singer and actress
- January 20 - David Lynch, American film director
- January 21 - Johnny Oates, baseball player and manager (d. 2004)
- January 22 - Serge Savard, Canadian hockey player and executive
- January 24 - Michael Ontkean, Canadian actor
- January 26 - Gene Siskel, American film critic (d. 1999)
- January 31 - Terry Kath, American musician (d. 1978)

February-March

- February 6 - Jim Turner, American politician
- February 13 - Colin Matthews, British composer
- February 14 - Bernard Dowiyogo, President of Nauru (d. 2003)
- February 14 - Gregory Hines, American dancer and actor (d. 2003)
- February 19 - Karen Silkwood, American activist (d. 1974)
- February 20 - Brenda Blethyn, English actress
- February 21 - Tyne Daly, American actress
- February 21 - Alan Rickman, English actor
- February 24 - Barry Bostwick, American actor
- February 25 - Franz Xaver Kroetz, German dramatist
- February 26 - Ahmed H. Zewail, Egyptian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- February 28 - Robin Cook, British politician (d. 2005)
- March 3 - Leszek Miller, Prime Minister of Poland
- March 6 - David Gilmour, English musician (Pink Floyd)
- March 7 - Peter Wolf, American musician (J Geils Band)
- March 8 - Linda Kelliher Samets, American entrepreneur
- March 12 - Liza Minnelli, American singer and actress
- March 15 - Bobby Bonds, baseball player and manager (d. 2003)
- March 17 - Georges J.F. Kohler, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1995)
- March 21 - Timothy Dalton, Welsh actor
- March 31 - Gonzalo Márquez, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player (d. 1984)

April-May

- April 4 - Dave Hill, English guitarist (Slade)
- April 7 - Colette Besson, French runner
- April 12 - Ed O'Neill, American actor
- April 16 - Margot Adler, American journalist
- April 19 - Tim Curry, British actor, vocalist, and composer
- April 25 - John Fox, British statistician
- April 25 - Talia Shire, American actress
- April 30 - King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden
- May 7 - Thelma Houston, American singer
- May 9 - Candice Bergen, American actress
- May 10 - Donovan Leitch, Scottish musician
- May 10 - Dave Mason, English musician (Traffic)
- May 11 - Robert Jarvik, American physicist and inventor
- May 17 - Udo Lindenberg, German musician
- May 18 - Reggie Jackson, baseball player
- May 19 - André the Giant, French professional wrestling (d. 1993)
- May 19 - Claude Lelièvre, Belgian Commissioner for Children Rights
- May 20 - Cher, American actress and singer
- May 22 - George Best, Irish footballer (d. 2005)
- May 23 - Frederik de Groot, Dutch actor
- May 26 - Mick Ronson, American guitarist (d. 1993)
- May 28 - K. Satchidanandan Malayalam poet
- May 29 - Fernando Buesa, Basque politician (d. 2000)
- May 30 - Candy Lightner, American founder of Mothers Against Drunk Driving

June-July

- June 6 - Peter Sutcliffe, English serial killer
- June 8 - Pearlette Louisy, Governor-General of St. Lucia
- June 12 - Harry Glasper, Football historian
- June 14 - Donald Trump, American real estate magnate
- June 15 - Noddy Holder, English singer (Slade)
- June 20 - Xanana Gusmao, first President of East Timor
- June 23 - Kathy Wilkes, English philosopher
- June 24 - Ellison Onizuka, astronaut (d. 1986)
- June 29 - Egon von Furstenberg, Swiss fashion designer (d. 2004)
- July 2 - Richard Axel, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- July 4 - Ed O'Ross, American actor
- July 6 - George Walker Bush, 43rd President of the United States
- July 6 - Sylvester Stallone, American actor
- July 9 - Bon Scott, Australian singer (AC/DC) (d. 1980)
- July 13 - Cheech Marin, American actor and comedian
- July 14 - John Wood, Australian actor
- July 15 - Linda Ronstadt, American singer and songwriter
- July 16 - Ron Yary, American football player
- July 22 - Danny Glover, American actor
- July 22 - Mireille Mathieu, French singer
- July 25 - Rita Marley, Jamaican singer
- July 30 - Neil Bonnett, American race car driver (d. 1994)

August

- August 3 - Jack Straw, British politician
- August 19 - Bill Clinton, 42nd President of the United States
- August 19 - Beat Raaflaub, Swiss conductor
- August 20 - Ralf Hütter, German singer and musician (Kraftwerk)
- August 20 - N.R. Narayana Murthy, Indian businessman
- August 23 - Keith Moon, English drummer (The Who) (d. 1978)
- August 25 - Rollie Fingers, baseball player
- August 29 - Bob Beamon, American athlete

September

- September 4 - Gary Duncan, American guitarist (Quicksilver Messenger Service)
- September 4 - Greg Elmore, American drummer (Quicksilver Messenger Service)
- September 5 - Freddie Mercury, Zanzibar-born singer (Queen) (d. 1991)
- September 7 - Willie Crawford, baseball player (d. 2004)
- September 7 - Francisco Varela, Chilean biologist (d. 2001)
- September 9 - Bruce Palmer, Canadian musician (Buffalo Springfield) (d. 2004)
- September 10 - Jim Hines, American athlete
- September 10 - Don Powell, English drummer
- September 15 - Tommy Lee Jones, American actor
- September 15 - Oliver Stone, American film director
- September 21 - Moritz Leuenberger, Swiss Federal Councilor
- September 23 - Franz Fischler, Austrian politician
- September 24 - Lars Emil Johansen, Prime Minister of Greenland
- September 26 - Christine Todd Whitman, American politician
- September 30 - Héctor Lavoe, Puerto Rican singer (d. 1993)

October

- October 1 - Tim O'Brien, American author
- October 6 - Lloyd Doggett, American politician
- October 6 - Renate Holub, German philosopher
- October 7 - Xue Jinghua, Chinese ballerina
- October 7 - Catharine MacKinnon, American feminist
- October 8 - Hanan Ashrawi, Palestinian scholar
- October 8 - John T. Walton, son of Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton (d. 2005)
- October 9 - Tansu Ciller, Turkish politician
- October 10 - Anne Boyd, Australian musician
- October 10 - Naoto Kan, Japanese politician
- October 11 - Leona Gom, Canadian writer
- October 13 - Edwina Currie, English politician
- October 13 - Dorothy Moore, American singer
- October 14 - Justin Hayward, English singer and songwriter (Moody Blues)
- October 14 - Kay Redfield Jamison, American psychologist
- October 15 - Marsha Hunt, American singer and novelist
- October 16 - Suzanne Somers, American actress
- October 16 - Elizabeth Witmer, Dutch-born politician
- October 17 - Vicki Hodge, English actress
- October 17 - Bob Seagren, American athlete and actor
- October 18 - Howard Shore, Canadian film composer
- October 18 - Andrea Zsadon, Hungarian soprano
- October 20 - Elfriede Jelinek, Austrian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- October 20 - Andrea Mitchell, American journalist
- October 21 - Lyn Allison, Australian politician
- October 22 - Eileen Gordon, British politician
- October 24 - Gwyneth Powell, British actress
- October 25 - Edith Leyrer, Austrian actress
- October 26 - Pat Sajak, American game show host
- October 27 - Leslie L. Byrne, American politician
- October 27 - Ivan Reitman, Slovakian-born film director and producer
- October 27 - Carrie Snodgress, American actress (d. 2004)
- October 28 - Sharon Thesen, Canadian poet
- October 29 - Kathryn J. Whitmire, Mayor of Houston, Texas
- October 30 - Lynne Marta, American actress
- October 31 - Caroline Jackson, British politician

November

- November 1 - Marina Abramovic, Yugoslavian performance artist
- November 1 - Lynne Russell, American newsreader
- November 2 - Giuseppe Sinopoli, Italian conductor and composer (d. 2001)
- November 4 - Laura Bush, First Lady of the United States
- November 5 - Herman Brood, Dutch artist (d. 2001)
- November 5 - Loleatta Holloway, American singer
- November 5 - Gram Parsons, American musician
- November 6 - Sally Field, American actress
- November 7 - Diane Francis, Canadian journalist
- November 7 - Martin Barre, Musician (Jethro Tull)
- November 8 - Stella Chiweshe, Zimbabwe musician
- November 10 - Alaina Reed Hall, American actress
- November 11 - Corrine Brown, American politician
- November 12 - P.P. Arnold, English singer
- November 13 - Ohara Reiko, Japanese actess
- November 14 - Carola Dunn, English writer
- November 15 - Sandy Skoglund, American photographer
- November 17 - Petra Burka, Canadian figure skater
- November 18 - Andrea Allan, Scottish actress
- November 18 - Amanda Lear, Hong Kong singer
- November 19 - Terry Baum, American playwright
- November 20 - Greg Cook, American football player
- November 20 - Judy Woodruff, American television personality
- November 21 - Emma Cohen, Spanish actress
- November 21 - Pam Freeman, American actress
- November 21 - Chaviva Hosek, Czech-born feminist
- November 21 - Ulla Jessen, Danish actress
- November 21 - Jacky Lafon, Belgian actress
- November 21 - Marina Warner, English writer
- November 22 - Anne Wheeler, Canadian television and film director
- November 24 - Ted Bundy, American serial killer (d. 1989)
- November 25 - Marika Lindstrom, Swedish actress
- November 26 - Ottilia Borbath, Romanian actress
- November 27 - Nina Maslova, Russian actress
- November 28 - Regina Braga, Brazilian actress
- November 29 - Suzy Chaffee, American singer and actress
- November 30 - Barbara Cubin, U.S. Congresswoman from Wyoming

December

- December 2 - Gulsun Karamustafa, Turkish artist and film director
- December 2 - Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer (d. 1997)
- December 3 - Marjana Lipovsek, Slovenian singer and actress
- December 3 - Joop Zoetemelk, Dutch cyclist
- December 4 - Sherry Alberoni, American actress
- December 4 - Angela Browning, British politician
- December 4 - You Inoue, Japanese voice actress (d. 2003)
- December 5 - José Carreras, Spanish tenor
- December 5 - Eva-Britt Svensson, Swedish politician
- December 6 - Chelsea Brown, American actress
- December 8 - Jacques Bourboulon, French photographer
- December 8 - Sharmila Tagore, Indian actress
- December 9 - Sonia Gandhi, Indian politician
- December 10 - Chrystos, American poet
- December 11 - Ellen Meloy, American writer (d. 2004)
- December 12 - Gloria Loring, American singer
- December 14 - Jane Birkin, English actress and singer
- December 14 - Patty Duke, American actress
- December 16 - Alice Aycock, American sculptor
- December 17 - Bel Mooney, English broadcast journalist
- December 18 - Nina Skottova, Czech politician and member of the European Parliament
- December 18 - Steven Spielberg, American film director
- December 19 - Candace Pert, American nueroscientist
- December 20 - Lesley Judd, English actress and television presenter
- December 20 - Dick Wolf, American television producer
- December 21 - Carl Wilson, American musician (d. 1998)
- December 23 - Edita Gruberova, Slovakian soprano
- December 24 - Roselyne Bachelot-Narquin, French pharmacist and politician and member of the European Parliament
- December 26 - Joyce Jillson, American astrologer (d. 2004)
- December 27 - Janet Street Porter, English broadcast journalist
- December 27 - Polly Toynbee, English journalist and writer
- December 29 - Marianne Faithfull, English singer and actress
- December 29 - Ruth Shady, Peruvian archaeologist
- December 30 - Patti Smith, American poet and singer
-

Synchrocyclotron

center (to be replaced in 2008 by newer technologies)]] A synchrocyclotron is a cyclotron in which the frequency of the driving RF electric field is varied to compensate for the mass gain of the accelerated particles as their velocity begins to approach the speed of light. This is in contrast to the classical cyclotron, where the frequency was held constant. Synchrocyclotrons have not been built since the isochronous cyclotron was developed. Isochronous cyclotrons maintain a constant RF driving frequency and compensate for the relativistic mass gain of the accelerated particles by increasing the magnetic field with radius. Isochronous cyclotrons are capable of producing much greater beam current than synchrocyclotrons.

Square kilometer

Square metre

Square mile

:This article is about the unit of measure. The Square Mile is a traditional name for the City of London in the United Kingdom. A square mile is the area equal to a square with sides each 1 mile long. It is not an SI unit. The SI unit of area is the square metre.

Symbol

There is no universally agreed symbol but the following are used:
- square mile
- sq mile
- sq mi
- sq m (this can be confused with square metre)
- mile²
- mi²

Conversions

1 square mile is equivalent to:
- 27 878 400 square feet
- 640 acres
- 2 589 988.11 square metres
- 2.589 988 11 square kilometres In the Public Land Survey System of the US and the Dominion Land Survey of Canada, the size of a standard section of land is one square mile.

Census

A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). It can be contrasted with sampling in which information is only obtained from a subset of a population. As such it is a method used for accumulating statistical data, and it is also vital to democracy (voting).

Ancient and medieval censuses

Rome conducted censuses to determine taxes (see Censor). The Bible relates stories of several censuses. The Book of Numbers describes a divinely-mandated census that occurred when Moses led the Israelites from Egypt. A later census called by King David of Israel, referred to as the "numbering of the people," incited divine retribution (for being militarily motivated or perhaps displaying lack of faith in God). A Roman census is also mentioned in one of the best known passages of the Bible in the Gospel of Luke. The world's oldest extant census comes from China during the Han Dynasty. Taken in the fall of 2 AD, it is considered by scholars to be quite accurate. At that time there were 57.5 million living in Han China, the world's largest population. The second oldest preserved census is also from the Han, dating back to 140 AD, when only a bit more than 48 million people were recorded. Mass migrations into what is today southern China are believed to be behind this massive demographic decline. In the Middle Ages, the most famous census is the Domesday Book, undertaken in 1086 by William I of England "to find out ... what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth," so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria.

Modern censuses

Australia

The Australian census is run by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. It is carried out every five years, the last one being on August 7, 2001 and the next planned census is August 8, 2006.

Brazil

The Brazilian census is carried out by IBGE, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, every 10 years. The last one was in 2000.

Canada

The Canadian census is run by Statistics Canada. The first census conducted in Canada was conducted in 1666, by French intendant Jean Talon, when he took a census to ascertain the number of people living in New France. In 1871, Canada's first formal census was conducted, which counted the population of Nova Scotia, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Quebec. In 1918, the Dominion Bureau of Statistics was formed. In 1971, Statistics Canada was formed to replace the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, and consequently, took over its census job. Censuses in Canada are conducted in five year intervals. The latest census was conducted in 2001 and the next planned census is 2006. Censuses taken in mid-decade (e.g. 1976, 1986, 1996, etc.) are referred to as quinquennial censuses. Others are referred to as decennial censuses. The first quinquennial census was conducted in 1956. See also: Canada 2001 Census

Costa Rica

Costa Rica carried out its 9th population census in 2000. INEC, National Institute of Statistics and Census is in charge of conduct these census. Past Costa Rican censuses were realized in 1864, 1883, 1892, 1927, 1950, 1963, 1973 and 1984.

Denmark

The first Danish census was in 1700-1701, and contained statistical information about adult men. Only about half of it still exists. A census of school children was taken during the 1730s. Following these early undertakings, the first census to attempt completely covering all citizens (including women and children who had previously been listed only as numbers) of Denmark-Norway was taken in 1769 [http://www.rhd.uit.no/census/ft1769.html]. At that point there were 797 584 citizens in the kingdom. Georg Christian Oeder took a statistical census in 1771 which covered Copenhagen, Sjælland, Møn, and Bornholm. After that, censuses followed somewhat regularly in 1787, 1801, and 1834, and between 1840 and 1860, the censuses were taken every five years, and then every ten years until 1890. Special censuses for Copenhagen were taken in 1885 and 1895. In the 20th century, censuses were taken every five years from 1901 to 1921, and then every ten years from 1930. The last census was taken in 1950. Currently, Det Centrale Personregister is doing the censuses using their register of Danish citizens. It is possible to search a portion of the Danish censuses online at [http://ddd.dda.dk/ Dansk Demografisk Database], and also view scanned versions at [http://www.arkivalieronline.dk/ Arkivalier Online].

France

Napoleon Bonaparte began the census in France as a means of determining the number of potential soldiers under his rule. Today, the census in France is carried out by INSEE. Since 2004, a partial census is carried out every year, and the results published as averages over 5 years.

Germany

The first large-scale census in the German Empire took place in 1895. Attempts at introducing a census in Germany sparked strong popular resentment in the 1980s since many quite personal questions were asked. Some campaigned for a boycott. In the end the Constitutional Court stopped the census in 1980 and 1983. The last census was in 1987. Germany has since used population samples in combination with statistical methods, in place of a full census.

Greece

Census takes place every 10 years and is carried out by the National Statistical Service of Greece [http://www.statistics.gr]. Last census was in 2001.

India

The decennial census of India is the primary source of information about the demographic characteristics of the population of India which is the second biggest country of the world in terms of population. The first census in India is dated 1872. It started as far back as in 1860 and was finished in 1871. Starting from there, a population census has been carried out every 10 years, latest being the fourteenth in February - March 2001. Census is carried out by the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, Delhi under the Census of India Act, 1948. The act gives Central Government many powers like to notify a date for Census, power to ask for the services of any citizen for census work. The law makes it compulsory for every citizen to answer the census questions truthfully. The Act provides penalties for giving false answer or not giving answers at all to the census questionnaire. One of the most important provisions of law is the guarantee for the maintenance of secrecy of the information collected at the census of each individual. The census records are not open to inspection and also not admissible in evidence. Census happens in two phases, first House Listing and House Numbering Operations and second actual population enumeration phase. Census is carried out by the canvassing method. In this method, each and every household is visited and the information is collected by a specially trained enumerator. 9th February 2001, the first day of the 2001 census was celebrated as the census day.

Source

- [http://www.censusindia.net/ Website of the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India]
- [http://www.unfpa.org/sustainable/docs.htm Banthia J.K., Ex Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. "Mobilising Support for India’s Census - Constraints and Challenges"]

Italy

The census in Italy is carried out by ISTAT every 10 years. The last four were in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001.

Japan

Japan collects census information every five years. The figures show the English translation of the 2005 census form. The form solicits information on name, sex, relationship to head of household, year and month of birth, marital status, nationality, number of members of household, type and nature of dwelling, floor area of dwelling, number of hours worked during the week prior to October 1, employment status, name of employer and type of business, and kind of work. Image:CensusSide1.png|Explanation of census form, side 1 Image:CensusSide2.png|Explanation of census form, side 2

Latvia

The most recent census in Latvia was in 2000. Before that, it was about 6 censuses, most part of these previous censuses was in the USSR time. The census in Latvia is carried out by Centrālā Statistikas Pārvalde (Central Statistical Bureau).

New Zealand

The census in New Zealand is carried out by Statistics New Zealand (Te Tari Tatau), every five years. The last was in 2001, the next will be in 2006. See New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings.

Poland

The census in Poland is carried out by GUS every circa 10 years. The last one occurred in 2002.

Portugal

The census in Portugal is carried out by INE every 10 years. The last one occurred in 2001.

Romania

The first census in Romania was carried out in 1859. Nowadays it is carried every ten years by the Institutul Naţional de Statistică (INSSE). The last one occurred in 2002.

Russia/USSR

In Russia, the first All-Russia Population Census was carried out in 1897. All-Union Population Censuses were carried out in the USSR (which included RSFSR and the other republics) in 1920, 1926, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989). The first (post-Soviet) All-Russia Population Census was carried out in 2002. Next census is tentatively planned for 2010. Currently, the census is the responsibility of the [http://www.gks.ru Federal State Statistics Service.]

South Africa

The census in South Africa is carried out every 5 years by Statistics South Africa. The only two to date were in

Saxonburg, Pennsylvania

History

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Butler County, Pennsylvania

Geography

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References

Brooklyn Bridge

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January

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Synchrocyclotron

See also

Square kilometer

Square mile

Symbol

Conversions

See also

Census

Ancient and medieval censuses

Modern censuses

Australia

Brazil

Canada

Costa Rica

Denmark

France

Germany

Greece

India

Source

Italy

Japan

Latvia

New Zealand

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Russia/USSR

South Africa