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2. Joerhonnert V. Chr.

2. Joerhonnert v. Chr.

Evenementer

- D'Réimescht Räich expandéiert no Osten an ënnerwerft ënner anerem Makedonien.
- Zerstéierung vu Karthago am Drëtte Punesche Krich.

Wichteg Perséinlechkeeten

- Plautus, réimeschen Dichter.
- Terentius, réimeschen Dichter.
-

Erfindungen an Decouverten

- Seidestrooss tëscht Europa an Asien.
- Den Hipparchos berechent d'Präzessioun vun der Dag a Nuet Gläichheet vun der Erd.

Joeren

Category:Joerhonnert ko:기원전 2세기 ja:紀元前2世紀

4. Joerhonnert v. Chr.

Evenementer

- Eroberungszich vum Alexander de Groussen.

Wichteg Perséinlechkeeten

- Alexander de Groussen.
- Platon.
- Aristoteles.
- Sun Tzu.

Erfindungen & Decouverten

- A China: Erfindung vun der Armbrust.

Joeren

Category:Joerhonnert ko:기원전 4세기 ja:紀元前4世紀

1. Joerhonnert v. Chr.

Evenementer

- Aus der Réimescher Republik gëtt d'Réimescht Keserräich.
- Eroberung vu Gallien duerch de Julius Cäsar.
- Gebuert vu Jesus Christus.
- Ermordung vum Cäsar.

Wichteg Perséinlechkeeten

- Julius Cäsar, réimeschen Diktator a Feldhär.
- Cicero, réimesche Politiker a Schrëftsteller.
- Augustus, réimesche Keser
- Kleopatra, Herrscherin iwwer Ägypten.
- Jesus Christus
- Pompeius, réimesche Feldhär.

Erfindungen an Decouverten

- Em d'Joer 100 entwéckelt de chinesesche Fuerscher Yuan Kang eng Theorie iwwert d'Zäitaltere vum Steen, der Jade, der Bronze an dem Eisen.

Joeren

Category:Joerhonnert ko:기원전 1세기 ja:紀元前1世紀

1. Joerhonnert

Evenementer

- Brand vu Roum
- Eroberung vu Britannien duerch d'Réimer.
- Zerstéierung vu Pompeii duerch en Ausbroch vum Vesuv (78).

Wichteg Perséinlechkeeten

- Tiberius, réimesche Keser.
- Claudius, réimesche Keser.
- Nero, réimesche Keser.

Erfindungen an Decouverten

Joeren

Category:Joerhonnert ko:1세기 ja:1世紀

Réimescht Räich

Als Réimescht Räich (Imperium Romanum) beschreiwt een generell de réimesche Staat an de Joerhonnerten no der Reorganisatioun vum Augustus. Obschons Roum och schon virum Augustus eng grouss Partie vu Länner erobert haat déi Tribut hu misse bezuelen, gëtt d'Zäit vrum Augustus als Réimesch Republik bezeechent. Den Ënnerscheed tescht réimeschem Räich a réimescher Republik ass haaptsächlech de Gouvernement. Am alldeegleche Sproochgebrauch gëtt den Ausdrock Réimescht Räich och benotzt fir d'Gebidd ze beschreiwen, daat vu Roum vum 6. Joerhonnert v. Chr. bis zum 5. Joerhonnert eiser Zäit beherrscht gouf. Déi gréissten Ausdeenung haat d'Réimescht Räich zur Zäit vum Keeser Trajan, wou d'Gebidder ronderem d'Mëttelmier, Gallien, Deeler vu Britannien a Lännereien ronderem d'Schwaarzt Mier zum Räich gezielt hun. Schwaarzt Mier D'Réimescht Räich haat e groussen Afloss op d'Gebidder wou ët sech ausgebred huet, an esouguer iwwert d'Grenzen eraus. Am Oste vum Räich huet sech de réimeschen Afloss mat griichesch-hellenisteschen an orientaleschen Elementer vermescht, während de Westen latiniséiert gouf. D'laténgesch Sprooch haat e groussen Afloss op eis modern romanesch Sproochen (italienesch, franséisch, spuenesch, portuguisesch a rumänesch). Vrun allem eise Rechts- a Staatssystem ass enorm vum Réimesche Räich geprägt gin. D'Geschicht vum Réimesche Räich léisst sech a 6 Phasen ënnerdeelen.
- Kinnekszäit (753-510)
- Réimesch Republik
- Biirgerkricher (säit 133 v. Chr.)
- Prinzipat (Réimescht Keeserräich säit 27 n. Chr.)
- Spéitantikitéit, och Dominat (Réimescht Keeserräich säit 284)
- Ënnergang vum westréimesche Räich an Iwwergang zum byzantineschen oder ostréimesche Räich (säit 395)

Réimesch Kinnekszäit a fréi Republik

De Stadtstaat Roum, deen um Ufank ënnert etruskescher Kinneksherrschaft stoung, krut ëmmer méi Afloss an Italien, nodeems en sech ca. 500 vun den Etrusker oofgeléist huet. Ët ass och zu dëser Zäit wou d'Kinnekräich an eng Republik ëmgewandelt gëtt, déi vun zwee Konsulen pro Joer, déi vum Senat gewielt goufen, regéiert gouf. Als éischten, einegermoossen festen Punkt, kann een d'Zwölftafelgesetz vun 451 notéieren. Roum huet mat enger Expansioun a Mëttelitalien ugefangen, mee huet nierwt Succèsen och Néierlagen missen astiechen. Dorops folgen d'Samnitekricher (343-290) an de Latinerkrich (340-338). Roum huet sech en Alliancesystem geschaaf, andeems d'Kolonien op strategesch wichtege Plaazen gegrënnt goufen. Ausserdem goufen Uniounen mat den italienesche Stämm geschloss, woubäi dës Awunner awer nët d'réimescht Biirgerrecht kruten.

Den Opstig vu Roum - D'Expansioun an Italien an am Mëttelmierraum

Am 3. Joerhonnert v. Chr. setzt sech Roum géint d'Samniten an aner italienesch Stämm duerch. No an no ass déi ganz Hallewinsel ënnert réimesch Herrschaft gefall, mat der Ausnahm vun Ueweritalien, waat spéider annexéiert gouf. Am Süde goufen d'griichesch Stadtstaaten ageholl. Dës Expansioun huet zu engem Konflikt mam bis dohinner friddleche Karthago gefouert, an dëst zu de Punesche Kricher. Am Éischte Punesche Krich (246-241) huet Roum eng Flott opgebaut, fir sech Karthago entgéintzestellen. No verschiddene Néierlagen konnt Roum sech a Sizilien etabléieren. Datt dëst Karthago nët gepasst huet ass kloer, an sou koum ët zum Zweete Punesche Krich, wou den Hannibal Roum ellen un d'Ziddere bruecht huet, besonnesch duerch d'réimesch Néierlag bei Cannae. Allerdéngs ass ët dem Hannibal nët gelongen, den italieneschen Allianzsystem ze zerstéieren, an de réimesche Feldhär Scipio gëtt dem Hannibal 202 bei Zama Meeschter. Karthago huet hier Muecht verluer an Roum, nierwt Spuenien, gewënnt un Afloss. De Sieg iwwer Karthago an den zwee éischte Punesche Kricher huet d'Stellung vu Roum am westleche Mëttelmier oofgeséchert. Ab 200 mëscht sech Roum och an d'Muechtspill vun den hellenistesche Räicher an. Do woren d'Groussmuechten nët an der Lag, friddlech zesummenzeliewen. D'Folleg woren Konflikter mat den Antigoniden wou Roum a Griicheland intervenéiert ass, fir de makedoneschen Afloss zeréckzedrängen. E weidere Krich gouf géint d'Seleukiden gefouert, an e Ruff ëm Hëllef haat e Krich géint den Antiochos III. zur Folleg. Domadder gouf Roum de facto d'Haaptmuecht am östleche Mëttelmier. D'Versich vu Makedonien, hier Hegemonie oprecht ze erhaalen, hun zu weidere Kricher gefouert, woubäi Makedonien 148 de Kiirzere gezunn huet, an zu enger réimescher Provenz gouf. Daat selwecht Schicksal gëllt fir Griicheland 146, an, no der Zerstéierung vu Karthago am Drëtte Punesche Krich, fir d'nei Provenz Africa. Nëmmen Ägypten, waat an e réimescht Protektorat ëmgewandelt gouf, a Pergamon konnten hier Onoofhängegkeet fir eng Zäit secheren. Pergamon gëtt 133 zu enger réimescher Provenz. 64/63 gëtt de Rescht vum Seleukideräich duerch de Pompeius zur Provenz Syria.

D'Revolutiounszäit an d'Biirgerkricher

Säit der Mëtt vum 2. Joerhonnert v. Chr. befënnt sech d'Republik an enger innepolitescher Kris déi zu de réimesche Biirgerkricher féiere wärt, an zu enger Reform vum politesche System féiere wärt. D'Reform vun de Gebridder Tiberius Gracchus a Gaius Gracchus, dGracchesch Reform, soll och den ärmste Schichte vun der Bevölkerung hëllefen, zu Land ze kommen. Obwuel des Reform net duerchgesat konnt gin, huet sie dach e Konflikt opgeworf, deen esoubaal net ophale sollt : dOptimates an dPopulares maache sech géigesäiteg d'Liewe schwéier, fir hir Politik duerchzesetzen. Mee och an Italien huet et gebrodelt, an den Allianzsystem koum un d'Wackelen, waat zum Bundesgenossekrich gefouert huet, no deem och all d'Allianzpartner d'réimescht Biirgerrecht kruten. Am Senat geet de Sträit monter weider, an Ufanks kann de Sulla sech als Diktator behaapten. No sengem Doud bekriche sech den Julius Cäsar an de Pompeius, woubäi de Pompeius de Kiirzeren zitt. Mee och den Cäsar kann sech als Diktator net behaapten a gëtt 44 v. Chr. ermuerd. Nom Doud vum Cäsar ass et de Republikaner awer net gelongen, déi aal Verhältnisser erem hirzestellen, an den Octavian, de spéideren Augustus, setzt sech schlussendlech duerch.
D'fréi Keeserzäit (Prinzipat)
Als dem Cäsar säin Ierwen huet den Octavian et Ufanks zimlech schwéier. Mee en huet aus de Fehler vu sengem Virgänger geléiert, a geet seng Reform méi douce un, fir de Senat net ze bruskéieren. Emmerhin ass jo bekannt, waat dem Cäsar geschitt ass, an de Octavian well secherlech net, datt et him genausou ergeet. Hie léisst also Ufanks déi republikanesch Konstitutioun a Kraaft, a sechert sech seng Positioun duerch eng ganz Partie Ämter. De Senat gesäit am Octavian dann och kee Kinnek, mee den Princeps, den éischte Biirger. De Regime, dee vum Octavian agefouert gouf, gëtt dowéinster och Prinzipat genannt. Am Joer 27 eiser Zäit kritt hien vum Senat den Titel mat deem hien an d'Geschichtsbicher agoe wärt, Augustus. D'Keeser wore Meeschter iwwert de gesamte Mëttelmierraum, an och de Westen a Süden vu Germanien gehéiert zum réimesche Räich. Am Nordosten gin d'Réimer allerdengs am Joer 9 gestoppt (Varusschluecht). Ënnert dem Keeser Claudius kennt Britannien zum Räich a spéider och Thrakien. Déi gréissten Ausdeenung haat d'Räich zur Zäit vum Keeser Trajan am Joer 117. Och d'Zäit vum Keeser Hadrian, deen zwar déi östlech Eroberungen vum Trajan opgëtt, ass eng gudd Zäit fir d'Räich. An der Mëtt vum 2. Joerhonnert schengt d'Räich op sengem Héichpunkt ukomm, mee schon ënnert dem Marcus Aurelius kommen déi éischt Problemer op d'Réimer duer (Kämpf mat de Germanen a Parther). An de folgenden Joerzingten ass keng Rouh am Räich. D'Grenze gin ëmmer méi oft ugegraff an och innepolitesch ass d'Situatioun nët roseg. Am 3. Joerhonnert konnten d'Severer d'Lag liicht stabiliséieren, mee och sie konnten e Krich mat de Sassaniden net verhënneren. Doropshin kommen d'Zaldotekeeser un d'Muecht, déi de Streidereie Meeschter gin an Palmyra ennerwerfen (272).
D'spéit Keeserzäit (Dominat)
284 gi mer mam Diokletian an d'sougenannte Spéitantikitéit. Hien huet d'Verwaltung reforméiert an de System vun der Tetrarchie agefouert. No dësem System gëtt et ëmmer zwee Senior-Keeser (Augusti) an zwee Junior-Keeser (Caesar). D'Räich war scho laang fir een alleng ze grouss gin, mee de Gedanken d'Unitéit opzegin koum nët a Fro. Dem Konstantin de Groussen wor daat allerdengs nët genuch. Hien huet seng Rivalen aus dem Wee geraumt a wor 324 erem eenzege Keeser. An d'Geschichtsbicher agangen ass hien vrun allem duerch d'offiziell Erlabnis vum Chrëschtentum an duerch d'Grënnung vu Konstantinopel, wouduerch sech den Haaptschwéierpunkt vum Räich méi no Osten geriicht huet. Ennert dem Valentinian I. gëtt d'Räich aus Verwaltungsgrënn dann trotzdem opgedeelt, eng Deelung déi nom Doud vum Theodosius I. definitiv wärt sin. No der Néierlag vun Adrianopel konnt hien d'Goten a Schach halen, andeems hien Veträg mat hinnen ënnerzeechent huet.
Den Ënnergang vum westréimesche Räich
Am Laaf vum 5. Joerhonnert ass allerdengs d'westréimescht Räich zerfall. Eng wichteg Ursach dovunner ass natiirlech d'Völkerwanderung. No der Schluecht vun Adrianopel 378 goung ëmmer méi d'Kontroll iwwert déi westlech Provenze verluer. Vrun allem de Verloscht vun Africa wor e schwéiere Schlag. De Regierungssëtz wor op Ravenna verluecht gin, mee och an Italien hun d'Germanen ëmmer méi un de Grenze geréckelt. 410 eroberen d'Westgoten Roum, 455 zéien d'Wandalen no. D'réimesch Arméi, déi zou engem gréissten Deel aus Söldner bestanen huet, haat deem wéineg entgéintzesetzen, an innepolitesch wor schon laang nët méi alles wéi ët si sollt. 476 setzt den Odoaker de westréimesche Keeser Romulus Augustulus oof, mee bleiwt awer dem ostréimesche Keeser trei. Am Osten wor d'Situatioun méi roseg, an d'Byzantinescht Räich besteet nach bis an d'15. Joerhonnert eran.
Nofolger
D'Hellegt Réimescht Räich vun Däitscher Natioun huet sech als Nofolger vum Westréimesche Räich ugesin, während de russeschen Zar iwwert d'byzantinesch Ierwschaft och d'Keeserkroun revendikéiert huet. D'Begrëffer Keeser an Zar sin dann och vum réimeschen Caesar oofgeleed.
Literatur zum Thema

- Alfred Heuss, Römische Geschichte, Schöningh, 2003. ISBN 3506739271
- Theodor Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 2001. ISBN 3423590556
- Klaus Bringmann, Geschichte der Römischen Republik, München 2002.
- Karl Christ, Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit, München 2002.
- A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, Oxford 1964.
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- Réimesch Republik
- Réimesch Keeserzäit
- Lëscht vun de réimesche Keeser
- Réimesch Mythologie
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- [http://la.wikipedia.org/ Laténgesch Wikipedia]
- [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/mommsen/roemisch/roemisch.htm Projet Gutenberg]
- [http://www.imperiumromanum.com/ Projet Imperium Romanum] Category:Réimescht Räich ja:ローマ帝国 simple:Roman Empire

Karthago

Karthago war an der Antikitéit eng grouss Stad an Nordafrika; hautesdaags läit do d'Stad Tunis. Iwwert Karthago gëtt schonn an der Geschicht vum Äneas, dee vun Troja an Italien wollt fueren an do Rascht gemaach huet, erzielt. Der Legend no huet zu dem Zäitpunkt, wou den Äneas do war, d'Kinnigin Elissa (op Däitsch: "Dido", op Franséisch "Didon") zu Karthago geherrscht. Déi huet sech d'Liewe geholl, well se onstierflech verléift an den Äneas war, allerdings ass dee virugezunn an Italien, anstatt do ze bleiwen. D'Awunner vu Karthago, déi Karthager, Punier oder Phönizier genannt ginn, waren déi, déi géint d'Réimer an den dräi Punesche Kricher gekämpft hunn. Karthago gouf zum Schluss vum drëtte Punesche Krich am Joer 146 viru Christus zerstéiert. Domat war eng Kultur vu villen honnert Joer komplett fort. Dobäi koumen extrem vill Leit ëm d'Liewen, an déi, déi iwwerlieft hunn, si versklaavt ginn. Category:Punesch Kricher Category:Stad (Tunesien) Category:Réimescht Räich ko:카르타고 ja:カルタゴ

Europa

- Europa, den Kontinent.
- Europa an der griichescher Mythologie. Category:Homonymie

Asien

Asien ass deen ëstlechen Deel vun Eurasien. Iwwer d´Halschent vun de Mënsche liewen um asiatesche Kontinent, mä a ganz ënnerschiddlecher Verdeelung. China an Indien zielen zu deee bevëlkerungsdichtesten Staten ob der Äerd. Asien ass mat 44 Millioune km2 flächeméisseg dee gréisste Kontinent.

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Category:Joerhonnert

All Artikel zu engem Joerhonnert fannt dir op dëser Säit opgelëscht. Category:Chronologie

British Monarchy

:This article describes the British monarchy from the perspective of the United Kingdom. In the other Commonwealth Realms, the constitutional role of the monarchy is identical, but the historical and cultural significance may differ. The British monarch or Sovereign is the head of state of the United Kingdom and in the British overseas territories. The current British monarchy can trace its line back to the Anglo-Saxon period. During the ninth century, Wessex came to dominate other kingdoms, and during the tenth, England was consolidated into a single realm. Most British monarchs in the Middle Ages ruled as absolute monarchs, as was standard across most of Europe. However, their power was often limited by the nobility and, later, by an increasingly democratic House of Commons. The powers of the monarchy, known as the Royal Prerogative, are still very extensive. Most prerogative powers are exercised directly by ministers, such as the power to regulate the civil service and the power to issue passports. A few major powers are exercised nominally by the monarch herself, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and according to constitutional convention. An example is the power to dissolve Parliament. According to a parliamentary report , "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers" and "It is long established law that Parliament can override and displace the prerogative by statute". It has long been established in the Constitution of the United Kingdom that political power is ultimately exercised by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, of which the Sovereign is a non-partisan, largely ceremonial component, along with the House of Lords and the House of Commons, and by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Thus, as the modern British monarchy is a constitutional one, the Sovereign's role is in practice limited to ceremonial and non-partisan functions (such as being the Fount of Honour). This role has been recognised since the nineteenth century; Walter Bagehot famously identified the monarchy as the "dignified part" (that is, ceremonial), rather than the "efficient part" of government in The English Constitution (1867). In practice, political power is exercised today through Parliament and by the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, but in practice the spiritual leadership of the Church is the responsibility of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The present monarch is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952. The heir apparent is her eldest son, The Prince Charles, Prince of Wales. The Prince of Wales undertakes various public ceremonial functions, as does the Queen's husband, The Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. There are several other members of Royal Family besides those aforementioned, including the Queen's other children, grandchildren and cousins. The British monarch is also Head of the Commonwealth and the monarch of fifteen other Commonwealth realms.

History

English monarchy

Monarchs had existed in the island of Britain since before Roman times; many of these "Celtic" rulers were to ally or fall to the Romans who made Britain part of their empire. Rome withdrew from Britain in the early fifth century, and a period of history followed that has, perhaps unfairly, been referred to as the Dark Ages. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain, and formed many kingdoms, the seven most powerful of which have been referred to as the Heptarchy. This term, however, is somewhat misleading, as it does not truly convey the complicated political make-up of Britain at the time. Each kingdom had its own "monarch," and at times one powerful king would have dominance over several others: there was no "British monarchy", however, and the idea that the so-called Bretwalda was some official royal title is rather fanciful. This was a ceremonial figure as opposed to a supreme ruler. Following the Viking raids and settlement of the ninth century, the kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex and achieved dominance over western Mercia, but he did not become King of England; the nearest title he assumed was "King of the Anglo-Saxons". It was Alfred's successors of the tenth century who built the kingdom now recognised as England, though even by the reign of Edgar the Peaceful England was not beyond fracturing into its constituent parts. The eleventh century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes which resulted in a Danish monarchy for some years. When William, Duke of Normandy conquered England in 1066 he became monarch of a kingdom with probably the strongest royal authority in Europe. William, Duke of Normandy, depicts the Norman Conquest.]] The Norman Conquest was crucial in British history, in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System also continued to develop. William I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, and then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the Throne, and took power with the support of most of the barons. Stephen's weak rule, however, allowed Matilda to challenge his reign; as a result, England soon descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power for the rest of his life; however, he agreed to a compromise under which he would be succeeded by Matilda's son Henry, who accordingly became the first monarch of the Angevin or Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154. The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs was marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry did manage to achieve an expansion of his empire; most notable was the conquest of Ireland, which had previously consisted of a multitude of rival kingdoms. Henry granted Ireland to his younger son John who ruled as "Lord of Ireland." Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; Richard, however, was absent from England for most of his reign, as he was fighting the Crusades. When Richard died, John succeeded him, thereby uniting England and Ireland under a single monarch. John's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, who in 1215 coerced him into issuing the Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, John repealed the charter, plunging England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III. The barons, led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, again rebelled later in Henry's reign, beginning the Second Barons' War. The war, however, ended in a clear royalist victory, and in the execution of many rebels. The next monarch, Edward I, was far more successful in maintaining royal power, and was responsible for the conquest of Wales and the establishment of English domination in Scotland. However gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who was occupied with a disastrous conflict with the nobility. Edward II was, in 1311, forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and executed by his wife Isabella and his son, who became Edward III. The new monarch soon also claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Edward III's campaigns were largely successful, and culminated in the conquest of much French territory. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses for the first time. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his ten year-old grandson Richard II. The new monarch, like many of his predecessors, conflicted with the nobles, especially by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, whilst he was away in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power; Richard was then forced to abdicate and was murdered. Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Henry V was victorious in his conquest; however, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the Throne, and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule. The unpopularity of Henry's regents, and afterwards, Henry's own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son Edward led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during the reigns of the Yorkists Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch, led by Henry Tudor (Henry VII), in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field. Battle of Bosworth Field The end of the Wars of the Roses formed a major turning point in the history of the monarchy. Much of the nobility was either decimated on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Hence, the Tudor monarchs easily re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The power of the Crown reached its zenith during the reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII. Henry VIII's reign was one of great political change; England was transformed from a weak kingdom into one of the powers of Europe. Religious upheaval also occurred, as disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break away from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church). Another important result of Henry VIII's reign was the annexation of Wales (which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion) to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542. Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms. Edward VI died in 1553, precipitating a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary to succeed to the Throne, and therefore drew up a will designating the Lady Jane Grey as his heiress, even though no woman had ever reigned over England. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her, revoked her proclamation as Queen, and declared herself the lawful Sovereign. Mary I attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, in the process burning numerous Protestants at the stake as heretics. Mary I died in 1558, to be succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth I, who once again returned England to Protestantism. The Elizabethan era involved the growth of England as a world power, as evidenced by England's success in the Anglo-Spanish War (especially the celebrated defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588) and by English colonies in North America. The era is often referred to as a "golden age" for England, especially due to the cultural achievements of William Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, and others.

Scottish monarchy

In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of Rome in the early fifth century. The two primary groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts (who inhabited the kingdom of Pictavia) and the Britons (who lived in several kingdoms in southern Scotland, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde). The late fifth century was marked by the arrival of another important group, the Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), from Ireland. The area settled by the Scotti would become known as the Kingdom of Dalriada. The Dalriadan King Kenneth MacAlpin obtained the Pictish Crown in the middle ninth century, and is traditionally viewed as the founder of united Scotland (or Alba). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next century, as other territories such as Strathclyde were subjugated. Alba Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead, they were elected under a custom known as tanistry. Although such was not its original purpose, tanistry soon evolved into a system whereby the monarchy alternated between two branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the two rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. The problems relating to succession were especially illustrated by the period from 942 to 1005, during which seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. Tanistry and the rotation of the monarchy between different lines were abandoned after Malcolm II ascended the throne in 1005. Thus, when Duncan I succeeded Malcolm II in 1034, he became the first Scottish monarch to directly inherit the throne. Duncan had previously become King of Strathclyde; as a consequence of his accession as King of Scots, most of modern-day Scotland stood unified under a single monarch. Only a few northern areas under the control of the Vikings remained separate. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, the subject of William Shakespeare's famous play (The Tragedy of Macbeth). Later, in 1057, Duncan's son Malcolm Canmore avenged his father's death by defeating and killing Macbeth. A few months later, after the murder of Macbeth's son Lulach, Malcolm Canmore ascended the throne as Malcolm III, becoming the first monarch of the House of Dunkeld. In achieving his victory, Malcolm had relied on assistance from England, heralding a long era of English interference in Scottish affairs. England's involvement became apparent after Malcolm III's death in 1093, when it participated in a series of Scottish succession conflicts between Malcolm's brother Donald III and Malcolm's sons. From 1107, Scotland was briefly partitioned under the will of King Edgar, who divided his dominions between his elder son Alexander I (who ruled northern Scotland as a king) and his younger son David (who ruled southern Scotland as an earl). After Alexander's death in 1124, David inherited his dominions, and Scotland became unified once more. David was succeeded by the ineffective Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in an rebellion against King Henry II of England; however, the rebellion failed, and William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas. Alexander III's death in 1286 brought his three year-old Norwegian granddaughter Margaret to the throne. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, precipitating a major succession crisis, during which there were thirteen rival claimants. Several Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England to settle the dispute; Edward chose John Balliol. Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, exerting considerable influence over Scottish affairs. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded and conquered Scotland. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch; however, it was informally led by the rebel leader William Wallace. After Wallace's execution in 1305, Robert the Bruce took over and declared himself king. Robert's efforts culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died, and the English again invaded under the pretext of restoring John Balliol's "rightful" heir, Edward Balliol, to the throne. Nonetheless, during further military campaigns, Scotland once again won its independence under Robert the Bruce's son David II. David II In 1371, David II was succeeded by Robert II, the first Scottish monarch from the House of Stewart (later Stuart). The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; in order to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen. At the same time, however, the Estates of Scotland (the Scottish Parliament) became increasingly powerful, often openly defying the King. Parliamentary power reached its zenith during the reign of the ineffective King James III. As a result, James IV and his successors tended to avoid calling parliamentary sessions, thereby checking the power of the Estates. In 1513, James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and over ten thousand soldiers were killed. As James IV's son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was taken over by regents. After he reached adulthood, James ruled successfully until another disastrous war with the English in 1542. James's death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary; once again, a regency was established. Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. Due to the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused considerable alarm by marrying a fellow Catholic, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1566, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate and to flee to England (where she was imprisoned and later executed by Elizabeth I). The Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. James VI would later become King of England upon the death of Queen Elizabeth I.

Since the Union of the Crowns

James VI Elizabeth's death in 1603 brought about the end to the rule of the House of Tudor; she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who ruled in England as James I. Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch, they remained separate kingdoms. James belonged to the House of Stuart, a royal house whose monarchs experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament. The disputes frequently related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. The conflict was especially pronounced during the reign of James I's successor Charles I, who provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640 (the "Eleven Years Tyranny"), unilaterally levying taxes, and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). In about 1642, the conflict between King and Parliament reached its climax as the English Civil War began. The war culminated in the execution of the king, the overthrow of the monarchy, and the establishment of a republic known as the Commonwealth of England. In 1653, however, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator). Oliver Cromwell continued to rule until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon abdicated, allowing the brief re-establishment of the Commonwealth. The lack of clear leadership, however, led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. The Restoration came about in 1660, when Charles I's son Charles II was declared king. The establishment of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was deemed illegal; Charles II was declared to have been the de jure king since his father's death in 1649. Charles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. There arose a parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession; the "Abhorrers," who opposed it, became the Tory Party, whereas the "Petitioners," who supported it, became the Whig Party. The Exclusion Bill, however, failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled as an absolute monarch until his death in 1685. The Catholic James II accordingly succeeded Charles (who himself converted to Catholicism on his deathbed). James pursued policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies (see Seven Bishops). As a result, a group of Protestant nobles and other notable citizens known as the Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm on 23 December of the same year. On 12 February 1689, the Convention Parliament declared that James's flight constituted an abdication, and that William III and Mary II (not James II's Catholic son James Francis Edward Stuart) were joint Sovereigns of England and Ireland. The Scottish Estates soon followed suit. James's overthrow is normally known as the Glorious Revolution, and was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights also required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of the Princess Anne's children had died, leaving Anne as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament, afraid that the former James II or his Roman Catholic relatives might attempt to reclaim the Throne, passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which placed William's distant Protestant cousin Sophia, Electress of Hanover, in the line of succession. Soon after the passage of the Act, William II died, leaving the Crown to his sister-in-law Anne. Sophia, Electress of Hanover After Anne's accession, the succession issue quickly re-emerged; the Scottish Estates, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia of Hanover, passed the Act of Security, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by cutting free trade. As a result, the Scottish Estates acquiesced to the Act of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession to be determined under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement. Accordingly, in 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by the son of the deceased Sophia of Hanover, George I, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was much less active in government than many of his predecessors, preferring to devote much of his time to the affairs of his German kingdoms. Instead, George left much of his power to his ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first (unofficial) Prime Minister of Great Britain. The decline of the influence of the monarch and the rise of the power of the Prime Minister and Cabinet continued during the reign of the next monarch, George II, but was halted during that of George III. George III attempted to recover much of the power given up by his Hanoverian predecessors; he also acted to keep the Tories (who favoured royal control in government more than the Whigs) in power whenever possible. George III's reign was also important because of the union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom under the Act of Union 1800. At the same time, George III also dropped the claim to the French Throne, which had been nominally made by all English monarchs since Edward III. Act of Union 1800 From 1811 to 1820, George III was insane, forcing his son, the future George IV, to rule as Prince Regent. During the Regency, and later during his own reign, George IV continued to maintain what remained of royal authority, instead of ceding it to Parliament and the Cabinet. His successor, William IV, attempted to do the same, but met with much less success. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, over policy differences, and instead appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, the Whigs maintained a large majority in the House of Commons; they forced Peel to resign by blocking most of his legislation, thus leaving the King with no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. Since 1834, no monarch has appointed or dismissed a Prime Minister contrary to the will of the democratically chosen House of Commons. William IV's reign was also marked by the passage of the Great Reform Act, which reformed parliamentary representation and abolished many rotten boroughs. The act, together with others passed later in the century, led to an expansion of the electoral franchise, and the rise of the increasingly legitimate House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament. The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover; thus, the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian Era was an historic one for the United Kingdom, and was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, the reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861. Victoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1901. However, in 1917, the next monarch, George V, replaced "Saxe-Coburg-Gotha" with "Windsor" due to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was also marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland (which remained a part of the United Kingdom) and the Irish Free State (an independent nation) in 1922. Soon thereafter, Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster 1931, under which self-government was granted to several parts of the British Empire. Formerly, the entire Empire was deemed to be the territory belonging to the British Crown; after the passage of the Statute, however, each dominion obtained its own monarchy. Hence, George V was separately King of the United Kingdom, King of Canada, King of Australia, and so forth. Australia George V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of the celebrated King Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry a divorced American woman, Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth realms granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were to be excluded from the line of succession; instead, the Crown went to his brother, George VI. The new monarch served as a figurehead for the British people during the Second World War, making several morale-boosting visits to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. George VI was also the last British monarch to hold the title "Emperor of India," a title relinquished when India was granted independence in 1947. George VI's death in 1952 was followed by the accession of the present monarch, Elizabeth II. Like her recent predecessors, Elizabeth II continues to function as a constitutional monarch. During her reign, there has been some support for the republican movement, especially due to negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, the divorce of Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales). Nevertheless, a large majority of the British public supports the continuation of the monarchy.

Succession

Main articles: Succession, Coronation Succession is governed by several enactments, the most important of which are the Bill of Rights 1689 and Act of Settlement 1701. The rules for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by an Act of Parliament. Succession is according to the rules of male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and under which elder children inherit before younger ones of the same sex. The Act of Settlement, however, restricts the succession to the natural (non-adopted) legitimate descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover (lived 1630–1714). 1714 The Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement also include certain religious restrictions, which were imposed because of the English people's mistrust of Roman Catholicism during the late seventeenth century. Most importantly, only individuals who are Protestants at the time of the succession may inherit the Crown. Moreover, a person who has at any time professed Roman Catholicism, or has ever married a Roman Catholic, is also prohibited from succeeding. One who is thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead" for succession purposes; the disqualifications do not extend to the individual's descendants. In recent years, there have been some efforts to remove the religious restrictions (especially the specific rules relating to Roman Catholicism), but the provisions still remain in effect. Upon a "demise in the Crown" (the death of a Sovereign) his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. (Hence arises the phrase "The King is dead. Long live the King!") Nevertheless, it is customary for the accession of the Sovereign to be publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St. James's Palace. After an appropriate period of mourning has passed, the Sovereign is also crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a Sovereign to rule; for example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short reign. After an individual ascends the Throne, he or she continues to reign until death. Monarchs are not allowed to unilaterally abdicate; the only monarch to voluntarily abdicate, Edward VIII (1936), did so with the authorisation of a special Act of Parliament. Historically, however, numerous reigns ended due to irregular or extralegal procedures; several monarchs have been killed, deposed, or forced to abdicate, chiefly during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James II, who fled the realm in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution; Parliament interpreted his flight as an abdication.

Regency

Main articles: Regency Acts, Counsellor of State Under the Regency Act 1937 and Regency Act 1953, the powers of a monarch who has not reached the age of eighteen, or of a monarch who is physically or mentally incapacitated, must be exercised by a regent. A physical or mental incapacity must be certified by at least three of the following people: the Sovereign's spouse, the Lord Chancellor, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, and the Master of the Rolls. The declaration of three or more of the same persons is also necessary to terminate the regency and to allow the monarch to resume power. When a Regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession becomes Regent; no special parliamentary vote or other confirmation procedure is necessary. The Regent must be aged at least twenty-one years (eighteen years in the case of the heir apparent or heir presumptive), be a British citizen, and be domiciled in the United Kingdom. The only individual to have acted as Regent was the future George IV, who took over the government of the realm whilst his father, George III, was insane (1811–1820). However, the Regency Act 1953 states that if the successor to the Queen is in need of a regency, HRH The Duke of Edinburgh will act as Regent. However, if the Queen herself is in need of a long-term regency, the next eligible in line of succession will act as Regent, unless that person is not one of the Queen's children or grandchildren. In that case, the Duke of Edinburgh will be regent. During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the Sovereign may temporarily delegate his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the Sovereign's spouse and the first four qualified people in the line of succession. The qualifications for Counsellors of State are the same as those for Regents. The present Counsellors of State are: HRH The Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband), HRH The Prince of Wales, HRH Prince William of Wales, HRH Prince Henry of Wales and HRH The Duke of York.

Political role

Although the monarch's powers are in theory vast, they are in practice very limited. As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, almost always exercising the Royal Prerogative on the advice of the Prime Minister and other ministers. The Prime Minister and ministers are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Commons, and through it, to the people. Whenever necessary, the Sovereign is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister; the appointment is formalised at a ceremony known as Kissing Hands. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Commons: usually, the leader of the party which has a majority in that House. If no party has a majority (an unlikely occurrence given the United Kingdom's First Past the Post electoral system), two or more groups may form a coalition, whose agreed leader is then appointed Prime Minister. In a "hung parliament," in which no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch obtains an increased degree of latitude in his or her choice of Prime Minister. Still, however, the individual most likely to command the support of the Commons, usually the leader of the largest party, must be appointed. Thus, for example, Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister soon after the February 1974 general election, even though his Labour Party did not have a majority. It has also been suggested that in the same situation, if a minority government tried to dissolve Parliament to call an election early to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and instead allow opposition parties to form a coalition government. However, Harold Wilson's minority government elected in February 1974 successfully called an early election in October 1974 which gave it a majority. The Sovereign appoints and dismisses Cabinet and other ministers, but exercises such a function only on the Prime Minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, exercises complete control over the composition of the Cabinet. The monarch may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but convention and precedent bar such an action. The last monarch to unilaterally remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. In practice, a Prime Minister's term comes to an end only with death or resignation. (In some circumstances, the Prime Minister is required to resign; see Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.) The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister, as well as regular audiences with other members of the Cabinet. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the Prime Minister's and Cabinet's decisions. Walter Bagehot, the nineteenth century constitutional writer, summarises this concept, "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights—the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn." The monarch has a similar relationship with devolved governments of Scotland and Wales. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland, but on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament. The First Minister of Wales, on the other hand, is directly elected by the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Executive. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom in Welsh matters. (Northern Ireland presently has no devolved government; its Assembly and executive have been suspended.) The Sovereign also plays a symbolic role in the United Kingdom. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, not to Parliament or to the nation. Moreover, God Save the Queen (or, if the Sovereign is male, God Save the King) is used as the British national anthem. The monarch's visage appears on postage stamps, on coins, and on banknotes issued by the Bank of England. (Banknotes issued by other British banks, such as the Bank of Scotland and the Ulster Bank, do not depict the Sovereign.)

Royal Prerogative

Main article: Royal Prerogative Royal Prerogative The powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the Royal Prerogative. The Royal Prerogative includes many powers (such as the powers to make treaties or send ambassadors) as well as certain duties (such as the duties to defend the realm and to maintain the Queen's peace). As the British monarchy is a constitutional one, however, the monarch exercises the Royal Prerogative on the advice of ministers. Parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the Royal Prerogative; moreover, the Consent of the Crown must be obtained before either House may even debate a bill affecting the Sovereign's prerogatives or interests. Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive, it is not unlimited. For example, the monarch does not have the prerogative to impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. The Sovereign is one of the three components of Parliament; the others are the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon, prorogue, and dissolve Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the Throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of five years), and is followed by general elections for all seats in the House of Commons. These powers, however, are always exercised on the Prime Minister's advice. The timing of a dissolution is affected by a variety of factors; the Prime Minister normally chooses the most politically opportune moment for his or her party. The Sovereign may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear. (See Lascelles Principles.) No parliamentary term may last more than five years; at the end of this period, a dissolution is automatic under the Parliament Act 1911. All laws are enacted in the monarch's name. The words "BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows," known as the enacting formula, form a part of each Act of Parliament. Before a bill can become law, the Royal Assent (the monarch's approval) is required. Theoretically, the Sovereign may either grant the Royal Assent (thereby making the bill law) or reserve the Royal Assent (postpone granting the Royal Assent), or withhold the Royal Assent (veto the bill). By convention, however, the monarch always grants the Royal Assent; therefore, the Sovereign's role with respect to approving bills is purely ceremonial. The last monarch to withhold the Royal Assent was Queen Anne, who did so when presented with a Scottish Militia Bill in 1708. The Royal Prerogative with respect to domestic affairs is extensive. He or she is responsible for the appointment and dismissal of ministers, Privy Counsellors, members of various executive agencies, and other officials. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by the Prime Minister, or, for less important offices, by other ministers. In addition, the monarch is the head of the Armed Forces (the British Army, the Royal Navy, and the Royal Air Force). It is the Sovereign's prerogative to declare war, make peace, and direct the actions of the military; as usual, the power is used only on ministerial advice. The Royal Prerogative, in addition, extends to foreign affairs. The Sovereign may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The Sovereign

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The Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (Arthur William Patrick Albert) (1 May 1850 – 16 January 1942) was a member of the British Royal Family, a son of Queen Victoria. Arthur served as the List of North American birds I've been aware of this list for some time and believe it meets the requirements. Filiocht | Blarneyman 13:09, May 18, 2005 (UTC)
- Support~~Object - this is an excellent example of the list genre, but it needs references (presumably the "External links" will suffice, though, although~~ something on paper would be good too). --

Wikipedia:Featured list candidates/List of popes

List of popes

Another classic. -- ALoan (Talk) 10:19, 19 May 2005 (UTC)
- Support. A fine example. Filiocht | Blarneyman 11:40, May 19, 2005 (UTC)
- Support Very thorough. Dsmdgold 23:15, May 19, 2005 (UTC)
- ~~Comment~~ I'll support now- This is an ex

Wikipedia:Featured list candidates/List of cultural references in The Cantos

List of cultural references in The Cantos

An offshoot of my work on The Cantos, this is the reference work I wish I'd had 35 years ago. Filiocht | Blarneyman 14:57, May 25, 2005 (UTC)
- Wow. Is it comprehensive? -- ALoan (Talk) 15:56, 25 Ma

Arthur Travers, 1st Baronet Harris
Sir Arthur Travers Harris, 1st Baronet (April 13, 1892 - April 5, 1984), commonly known as "Bomber" Harris, and often within the RAF as "Butcher" Harris, was commander of RAF Bomber Command and later a Marshal of the Royal Air Force during the latter ha

Embellishments (music)
In music, ornaments are musical flourishes that are not necessary to the overall melodic (or harmonic) line, but serve to decorate or "ornament" that line. They are performed as "fast notes" around a central note. The amount of ornamentation in a piece of music can vary from quite extensive (it was often so in the Baroque period) to relatively little or even none. The word agrément is used specifically to indicate the French Baroque style of ornamentation. In the baroque period, it was comm

ELFE
English as a lingua franca for Europe, also known by the abbreviation ELFE, is a concept promoted by some linguistics experts, which aims to standardise the use of the English language in the European Union. English, in some form or another, is already widely used and understood by people in EU countries, despite it only being spoken natively by a small percentage of those people. However, regional differences in English, as well as