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Alinghi

Alinghi

The Swiss syndicate Alinghi was the winner at the America's Cup yachting regatta in Auckland in 2003, against the defenders Team New Zealand. Alinghi's winning yacht was identified and christened by its sail number: SUI-64. Alinghi also had a test yacht from the 2000 America's cup, SUI-59 (formerly called Fast 2000) as well as another racing yacht which was never used in the 2003 America's Cup or Louis Vuitton Cup, SUI-75. Alinghi is a coined name, created by the syndicate's founder Ernesto Bertarelli. Bertarelli had raced several smaller yachts named Alinghi previously, but 2003 was his first attempt at the America's Cup. In order to maximize his chance of success, the yacht was developed by the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne specifically for the race and he hired the best in the business: Russell Coutts. Coutts had already won the America's Cup for New Zealand in 1995 and he successfully defended for New Zealand in 2000. Along with Coutts came several other important Kiwi sailors, not the least of which was Brad Butterworth. Bertarelli himself served as Navigator during the racing. Apart from New Zealand, the Alinghi consists of members hailing from the United States, The Netherlands, France, Italy, Spain, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Switzerland.

External link


- [http://www.alinghi.com/ Alinghi official site] Category:Sailboat Names Category:Yachts

Switzerland

The Swiss Confederation or Switzerland (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica) is a landlocked federal republic in Europe, bordering Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein. The country has a strong tradition of political and military neutrality, but also of international cooperation, and is home to many international organisations. Confoederatio Helvetica is the Latin official name. The use of Latin avoids having to choose one of the four official languages. The abbreviation (CH) is similarly used; for example, it is used as Switzerland's ccTLD, .ch. The Latin title Confoederatio Helvetica means Helvetic Confederation. The titles commonly used in French, Italian and Romansh translate as Swiss Confederation, while the German name of Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft translates roughly as "Swiss Oath Fellowship" or "Swiss Commonwealth of the Covenant".

History

Switzerland is a federation of relatively autonomous cantons, some of which have a history of confederacy that goes back more than 700 years, arguably putting them among the world's oldest surviving republics. According to the popular legend, in 1291, representatives of the three forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed the Federal Charter. The charter united the involved parties in the struggle against foreign rule by the Habsburgs, who then held the German imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire. At the Battle of Morgarten on November 15, 1315, the Swiss defeated the Habsburg army and secured quasi-independence as the Swiss Confederation. The authenticity of the Federal Charter is disputed, with many historians agreeing that it is in fact a forgery of the 14th century. By 1353, the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the city states of Lucerne, Zürich and Berne, forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the 15th century (although Zürich was expelled from the confederation during the 1440s due to a territorial conflict) and led to a significant increase of power and wealth of the federation, in particular due to the victories over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The traditional listing order of the cantons of Switzerland reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the federation after 1481, in historical order. The Swiss victory in a war against the Swabian League in 1499 amounted to de facto independence from the Holy Roman Empire. In 1506, Pope Julius II engaged the Swiss Guard that continues to serve the Vatican to the present day. The expansion of the federation, and the reputation of invincibility acquired during the earlier wars, suffered a first setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal wars in 1529 and 1531 (Kappeler Kriege). The conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the battles of Villmergen in 1656 and 1712. 1712] Under the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality (ancien régime). In 1798, the armies of the French Revolution conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country and effectively abolished the cantons. The new regime was known as the Helvetic Republic and was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army, had destroyed centuries of tradition, including the right to worship, and had made Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. Uprisings were common and only the presence of French troops kept them from succeeding. The brutal French suppression of the Nidwalden revolt in September was especially infamous. When war broke out between France and other countries Switzerland found itself being invaded by other outside forces from Austria and Russia. The Swiss were divided mainly between "Republicans" who were in favour of a centralised government, and "Federalists" who wanted to restore autonomy to the cantons. The violent conflict between both sides was never-ending. In Paris in 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 Cantons. From then on much of Swiss politics would be about preserving the cantons' right to self-rule and the need for a central government. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise the Swiss neutrality. At this time, the territory of Switzerland was increased for the last time, by the new cantons of Valais, Neuchatel and Geneva. In 1847, a civil war broke out between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons (Sonderbundskrieg). Its immediate cause was a 'special treaty' (Sonderbund) of the Catholic cantons. The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties. Apart from small riots, this was the latest armed conflict on Swiss territory. As a consequence of the civil war, Switzerland adopted a federal constitution in 1848, amending it extensively in 1874 and establishing federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters. In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remains unique even today. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterised Swiss history. In 1920, Switzerland joined the League of Nations, and in 1963 the Council of Europe. Switzerland proclaimed neutrality in World War I and was not involved militarily in the conflict. Neutrality was again proclaimed in World War II, and although a German intervention was both planned and anticipated, it ultimately didn't occur. The massive mobilisation of Swiss armed forces under the leadership of General Henri Guisan is often cited as a decisive factor that the German invasion was never initiated. Modern historical findings, such as the research done by the Bergier commission, indicate that another major factor was the continued trade by Swiss banks with Nazi Germany. Bergier commission Women were granted the right to vote in the first cantons in 1959, at the federal level in 1971, in the last canton, Appenzell Innerrhoden, only in 1990. In 1979, parts of the canton of Berne attained independence, forming the new canton of Jura. On April 18, 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution. In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is not a member state of the EU but applied for membership therein in May 1992. Switzerland has not advanced this application since the rejection, by referendum, of the European Economic Area in December 1992. However, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to that of the EU and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland (together with Liechtenstein) has been surrounded by the EU since Austria's membership in 1995. On June 5, 2005, Swiss voters agreed, by a 55% majority, to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was welcomed by EU commentators as a sign of goodwill by a Switzerland that is traditionally perceived as isolationist.

Politics

Schengen treaty]] The bicameral Swiss parliament, the Federal Assembly, is the primary seat of power, apart from the Federal Council. Both houses, the Council of States and the National Council, have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation. Under the 1999 constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from former half cantons) are directly elected in each canton, whereas the 200 members of the National Council are elected directly under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. Through referenda citizens may challenge any law voted by federal parliament and through initiatives introduce amendments to the federal constitution, making Switzerland a semi-direct democracy. The top executive body and collective Head of State is the Federal Council, a collegial body of seven members. Although the constitution provides that the Assembly elects and supervises the members of the Council, the latter (and its administration) has gradually assumed a pre-eminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws. The President of the Confederation is elected from the seven to assume special representative functions for a one-year term. From 1959 to December 2003, the four major parties were represented in the Federal Council according to the "magic formula", proportional to their representation in federal parliament: 2 Christian Democrats (CVP/PDC), 2 from the Social Democrats (SPS/PSS), 2 Free Democrats (FDP/PRD), and 1 from the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC). This traditional distribution of seats, however, is not backed up by any law, and in the 2003 elections to the Federal Council the CVP/PDC lost their second seat to the SVP/UDC. The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals of cantonal courts or the administrative rulings of the federal administration. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms. See also: International relations of Switzerland

Direct democracy

Switzerland features a system of government not seen at the national level on any other place on earth: Direct democracy. Any citizen may challenge a law that has been passed by parliament. If he is able to gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days, a national vote has to be scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law. Also, any citizen may seek a decision on an amendment they want to make to the constitution. For such an amendment initiative to be organised, the signatures of 100,000 voters must be collected within 18 months. Such a popular initiative may be formulated as a general proposal or - much more often - be put forward as a precise new text whose wording can no longer be changed by parliament and the government. After a successful vote gathering, the federal council may create a counterproposal to the proposed amendment and put it to vote on the same day. Such counterproposals are usually a compromise between the status quo and the wording of the initiative. Voters will again decide in a national vote whether to accept the initiative amendment, the counterproposal put forward by the government or both. If both are accepted, one has to additionally signal a preference. Initiatives have to be accepted by a double majority of both the popular votes and a majority of the states.

Energy politics

The energy generated in Switzerland comprises around 40 percent nuclear power and 60 percent from hydroelectricity. On May 18, 2003, two referenda regarding the future of nuclear power in Switzerland were held. The referendum Electricity without nuclear asked for a decision on a nuclear power phase-out and Moratorium Plus asked about an extension an existing law forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down: Moratorium Plus by a margin of 41.6% for and 58.4% opposed, and Electricity Without Nuclear by a margin of 33.7% for and 66.3% opposed. The former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes (see Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland for details).

Cantons (states)

Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland]] The Swiss Confederation consists of 26 cantons:
- These cantons are represented by only one councillor in the Council of States. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km² (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km² (Grisons). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,889 municipalities. The following are enclaves within Switzerland: Büsingen is territory of Germany, Campione d'Italia is territory of Italy.

Geography

Italy With an area of 41,285 km², Switzerland is a small country. The population is around 7.4 million, resulting in a population density of 184 people per km². Switzerland comprises three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps, the Swiss plateau, and the Jura mountains.The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country. Among the high peaks of the Swiss Alps, the highest of which is the Dufour Peak at 4,634 m, are found countless valleys, some with glaciers. From these the headwaters of several major European rivers such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, the Aare or the Ticino, flow down into lakes such as Lake Geneva, Lake Zürich, Lake Neuchâtel, and Lake Constance. Lake Constance The northern, more populous part of the country is more open, but can still be mountainous, for example, in the Jura Mountains, a smaller range in the northwest. The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from harsh conditions on the high mountains to the often pleasant Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. A zoomable map of Switzerland is available at either [http://www.swissinfo-geo.org www.swissinfo-geo.org] or [http://www.swissgeo.ch www.swissgeo.ch]; a zoomable satellite picture is at [http://map.search.ch/ map.search.ch].
See also: Swisstopo topographical survey, List of lakes of Switzerland, List of rivers of Switzerland, List of mountain passes in Switzerland.

Economy

Switzerland is a prosperous and stable modern market economy, with a per capita GDP that is higher than those of the big western European economies. For much of the 20th century Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin. However since the early 1990s it has suffered from slow growth, and as of 2005 it had fallen to fourth among European states with populations above one million in terms of Gross Domestic Product per capita at purchasing power parity, behind Ireland, Denmark and Norway (see list). Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association. In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the European Union, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness, but this has not produced strong growth. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this. To this end, it has established an [http://www.europa.admin.ch/e/index.htm Integration Office] under the Department of Foreign and Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and Brussels signed seven agreements, called Bilateral Agreements I, to further liberalise trade ties in 1999 and entering into force in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and awaits ratification. The second series includes the Schengen treaty and the Dublin Convention. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation. Preparatory discussions are being opened on four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GPS system Galileo, cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products. Switzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union and European countries through bilateral agreements.
- List of Swiss companies
- Swiss bank

Demographics

Swiss bank (19.2%),
Italian (7.6%),
Romansh (0.6%)]] Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures that have heavily influenced the country's languages and culture. Switzerland has three nationwide official languages (German (64%) in the north and centre, French (19%) to the west, and Italian (8%) in the south), plus a fourth national language that is considered official locally (Romansh, a Romance language spoken by a small minority (< 1%) in the southeastern canton of Graubünden and in parts of Ticino). The federal government is obliged to communicate in the three official languages. In the federal parliament, German, French and Italian are the official languages and simultaneous translation is provided. The German spoken in Switzerland is predominantly a group of dialects that are almost unintelligible to Germans and are collectively known as Swiss German, but written communication and broadcasts typically use standard German. Swiss French and Swiss Italian differ far less from their counterparts in France and Italy, respectively. Learning one of the other national languages at school is obligatory for all Swiss, so most Swiss are at least bilingual. English is considered by some as a Swiss lingua franca, and most Swiss people have some command of English; many Swiss documents and websites are available in English. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 20% of the population. The most popular religion in Switzerland is Roman Catholicism (43% of the population). There are various Protestant denominations (35%), while immigration has brought Islam (4%) and Eastern Orthodoxy (2%) as sizeable minority religions. The stability and prosperity of Switzerland, combined with a linguistically diverse population, has led some to describe the country as a consensus, or consociational state.
- List of Swiss people

Culture

List of Swiss people] The culture of Switzerland is influenced by its neighbours, but over the years a distinctive culture with strong regional differences has developed. Traditionally Switzerland is not considered one of the centres of European culture, but this conception might be deceptive. A number of culturally active Swiss have chosen to move abroad, probably given the limited opportunities in their homeland. At the same time, the neutrality of Switzerland has attracted many creative people from all over the world. In war times the tradition of political asylum helped to attract artists, whilst recently low taxes seem predominant. Strong regionalism in Switzerland makes it difficult to speak of a homogeneous Swiss culture. The influence of German, French and Italian culture on their neighbouring parts and the influence of Anglo-American culture cannot be denied. The Rhaeto-Romanic culture in the eastern mountains of Switzerland is robust. The Swiss are noted for their banks, their chocolate, their cheese, their pocket knives, their watches (particularly the famous Rolex), their private boarding schools and their strengths in engineering and the sciences. The tallest building in Switzerland is the Basler Messeturm.
- Music of Switzerland
- Culture of Switzerland
- Swiss cuisine
- SRG SSR idée suisse

See also


- 2004 in Switzerland, 2005 in Switzerland
- Communications in Switzerland
- Data codes for Switzerland
- Education in Switzerland
- Enlargement of the European Union#Switzerland
- Gun politics in Switzerland
- List of cities in Switzerland
- List of Swiss people
- Military of Switzerland
- Stamps and postal history of Switzerland
- Swiss citizenship
- Transportation in Switzerland
- List of Swiss companies
- List of Switzerland-related topics

External links


- Governmental websites
  - [http://www.admin.ch/ch/index.en.html The Federal Authorities]
  - [http://www.parlament.ch/e/homepage.htm The Swiss Parliament]
  - [http://www.bger.ch/ Federal Supreme Court] - (in German, French and Italian)
  - [http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/ Swiss Federal Statistical Office]
- [http://www.swissinfo.org/ Switzerland's news and information platform] - maintained by the public Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (in 9 languages)
- Historical Dictionary of Switzerland: [http://www.dhs.ch www.dhs.ch] - Country encyclopedia (in German, French and Italian)
- [http://www.swissworld.org/ Swissworld] - an encyclopedic presentation of the country by the Swiss Confederation
- [http://www.about.ch/ About.ch] - another presentation of the country
- [http://www.myswitzerland.com/ Switzerland Tourism] National tourist office
- [http://www.culturelinks.ch/ Culturelinks.ch] - a portal giving access to Swiss culture websites
- [http://www.are.ch/ Spatial Planning in Switzerland] Website of Swiss Federal Office for Spatial Development (land-use planning, transportation, sustainable development)
- [http://map.search.ch/ Map.Search.ch] Maps of Switzerland
- [http://www.justlanded.com/english/switzerland/ Just Landed Switzerland] - Useful info for moving to Switzerland
- Alemannic Wikipedia
- Category:Landlocked countries als:Schweiz zh-min-nan:Sūi-se ko:스위스 ms:Switzerland ja:スイス simple:Switzerland th:ประเทศสวิตเซอร์แลนด์

Auckland

Auckland, in the North Island of New Zealand, is the largest urban area in New Zealand. It is a conurbation, made up of the cities of Auckland, Waitakere, Manukau and North Shore. In Māori it bears the name Tāmaki Makau Rau or Ākarana. Auckland lies between the Hauraki Gulf of the Pacific Ocean to the east, the low Hunua Ranges to the south-east, Manukau Harbour to the south-west, and the Waitakere Ranges and smaller ranges to the west and north-west. The central part of the urban area occupies a narrow isthmus between Manukau and Waitemata harbours (and is one of the few cities in the world to have two harbours, as well as having sea ports to each coast - Tasman and Pacific).

History

Māori settlers

The area, Tamaki Makau Rau (isthmus of one thousand lovers), now known as Auckland, was first settled by Māori people around 1350. The region was valued for its rich and fertile land. Māori constructed terraced pa (fortified villages) on the volcanic peaks. Māori population is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 in the region in pre-settlement times, a figure which would later qualify in New Zealand as a city. Earthworks are still evident today around some of the larger volcanoes such as; Mount Albert, Mount Eden and One Tree Hill. The isthmus, at around 8km from coast to coast - with Mount Eden and One Tree Hill placed along the line of the narrowest point, led to the area having great strategic qualities. The isthmus also has the highly productive soils providing agricultural opportunities, and the two harbours (Waitemata to the East and Manukau to the West) providing diverse kai moana (seafood). Ngāti Whātua and Tainui were the main tribes traditionally living in the area. The arrival of Europeans, using guns as one of many trade commodities, changed the balances of power between Iwi with the inevitable result of armed conflict. European settlement caused Maori numbers in what is now central Auckland city to be greatly reduced due to; inter-iwi warfare, new diseases (especially smallpox and tuberculosis), and the common ills experienced by indigenous peoples of colonisation. There was a period of migrations of both Europeans and Māori. One of the initial appeals of the area to Europeans being it was virtually uninhabited. Āpihai Te Kawau (c. 1760 - 1869), leader of the Ngati Taou Hapu, was a good friend of Samuel Marsden. Over a 10 month period of 1821 - 1822, he took a principle part in the 1,000 mile Amiowhenua expedition. This series of battles raged through much of central and southern North Island. It ended when Te Kawau's Ngāti Whātua forces, uniting with the Taranaki they were embattled with, to jointly defend the Tainui Matakitaki pa from Hongi Hika's Nga Puhi forces. By 1840 Te Kawau had become the paramount chief of Ngāti Whātua. Cautious of reprisals from the Nga Puhi defeated at Matakitaki, Te Kawau found it most convenient to offer Governor Hobson land around the present central city. He and six other chiefs travelled the Bay of Islands to make the offer and signed the Treaty of Waitangi on 20th March. Ngāti Whātua would certainly have expected from English colonialism increased security and trading benefits. This would include greater access via the quickly developed port facilities for the lucrative trade in produce grown in Tainui's fertile Waikato and Hauraki Plains for the Australian prison colonies and Sydney market. The sale price for the initial 3,000 acres (12 km²) was for cash and goods to the value of £341. As Māori population declined for nearly a century, so did the quantity of land held by Ngāti Whātua. Within 20 years, 40% of their lands were lost, some through government land confiscation. At close to the lowest level of population, Ngāti Whātua land holding was reduced to a few acres at Orakei, land which Te Kawau had declared "a last stand".

Birth of Auckland

After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in February 1840 the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson, had the task of choosing a capital for the colony. At the time Kororareka, now called Old Russell, in the Bay of Islands, served as the effective capital. However, Kororareka's geographical position made it very remote, inaccessible and off-centre from the rest of the New Zealand archipelago, and the town had a notorious reputation for drunkenness and immorality. Bay of Islands Even in 1840 Port Nicholson (now the location of Wellington) probably seemed the obvious choice for an administrative capital. Centrally situated at the south of the North Island, close to the South Island, and growing fast, it had a lot to commend it. But the New Zealand Company and the Wakefield brothers had founded and continued to dominate Port Nicholson. Furthermore, it already had a bad reputation with the Māori for unscrupulous or even illegal occupation of land. On the initial recommendation of the missionary Henry Williams, supported by the Surveyor General, Felton Mathew, and the offer of land from Ngāti Whātua, Hobson selected the south side of Waitemata Harbour as his future capital. The Chief Magistrate, Captain William Cornwallis Symonds, soon purchased the further land from Ngāti Whātua, and a foundation ceremony took place at 1pm on 18 September 1840, probably on the higher ground at the top end of present-day Queen Street. Hobson named the new settlement in honour of George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland, a patron and friend of his. The New Zealand Government Gazette announced the royal approval of the name on 26 November 1842. From the outset a steady flow of new arrivals from within New Zealand and from overseas came to the new capital. Initially settlers from New South Wales predominated, but the first immigrant ships sailing directly from Britain started to arrive as early as 1842. From early times the eastern side of the settlement remained reserved for government officials while mechanics and artisans, the so-called "unofficial" settlers, congregated on the western side. This social division still persists in modern Auckland. Eventually Port Nicholson became the capital and, now known as Wellington, remains so today. The advantages of a central position became even more obvious as the South Island grew in prosperity with the discovery of gold in Otago, and with the development of sheep farming and refrigeration, especially refrigerated ships which allowed chilled meat to be safely shipped to Britain. Parliament met for the first time in Wellington in 1862. In 1868 Government House moved there too.

Growth of Auckland

Government House Auckland formed a base for Governor George Grey's operations against the rebel Maori King Movement in the early 1860s. Grey's modus operandi involved opening up the Waikato and King Country by building roads, most notably Great South Road, (a large part of which now forms State Highway 1). This enabled rapid movement, not only of soldiers, but also civilian settlers. It also enabled the extension of Pakeha influence and law to the South Auckland region. During the mid 19th century, European settlement of New Zealand was predominantly in the South Island. Auckland however gradually became the commercial capital. Market gardens were planted on the outskirts, while kauri tree logging and gum digging opened up the Waitakere Ranges. A Russian scare at the end of the century caused coastal guns to be bought and fortifications built, notably at Devonport and on Waiheke Island, where they can still be seen. By 1900 Auckland was the largest New Zealand city. In World War II the city was overflown by a Japanese seaplane, chased ineffectually by a Royal New Zealand Air Force De Havilland Tiger Moth. In the 1950s the Auckland Harbour Bridge was constructed, linking North Shore with the city. As flying boat services from Mechanics Bay and Hobsonville by aircraft such as the Short Solent and Short Sunderland were replaced by landplanes, an airport was opened at Mangere, supplanting earlier airfields at Ardmore and Whenuapai. Whenuapai Following the initiative of Michael Joseph Savage's New Zealand Labour Party large numbers of state houses were constructed through the late 1930s, '40s and '50s, usually on quarter-acre (1,000 m²) sections - a tradition that survives despite frequent subdivision. Auckland is a largely suburban city: although it has not much more than a seventh of the population of London, it sprawls over a considerably larger area - a fact that serves to make public transport by Auckland's rail and bus systems unpopular and uneconomic. All four electrical power cables supplying the Central Business District failed on 20 February 1998, causing the 1998 Auckland power crisis. It took five weeks before an emergency overhead cable was completed to restore the power supply to the Central Business District. For much of that time, about 60,000 of the 74,000 people who worked in the area, worked from home or from relocated offices in the suburbs. Many of the 6,000 apartment dwellers in the area had to find alternative accommodation.

Geography and climate

Volcanoes

1998 Auckland power crisisAuckland straddles the volcanoes of the Auckland Volcanic Field. The 50 volcanic vents in the field take the form of cones, lakes, lagoons, islands and depressions. Some of the cones have been partly or completely quarried away. The volcanoes are all individually extinct although the volcanic field itself is merely dormant. The most recent and by far the largest volcano, Rangitoto Island, formed within the last 1000 years. 'Rangi' means 'sky' and 'toto' means 'blood', which indicates it was named by Maori who had witnessed its eruption. Its size, its symmetry, its position guarding the entrance to Waitemata Harbour and its visibility from many parts of the Auckland region make it Auckland's most iconic natural feature. Rangitoto is eerily quiet as almost no birds and insects have settled on the island because of the rich acidic soil and type of flora that has adapted to grow out of the black broken rocky soil.

Isthmus and harbours

Waitemata Harbour Auckland lies on and around an isthmus, less than two km wide at its narrowest point between Mangere Inlet and Tamaki River. There are two harbours in the Auckland urban area surrounding this isthmus, Waitemata Harbour to the north, which opens east to the Hauraki Gulf, and Manukau Harbour to the south, which opens west to the Tasman Sea. Bridges span both of these harbours, Auckland Harbour Bridge on Waitemata Harbour and Mangere Bridge on Manukau Harbour.

Climate

Auckland has a warm-temperate climate, with warm, humid summers and cool but damp and lengthy winters. January temperatures average 21-24 °C (February and March are typically warmer than January, however), and July maximum temperatures average 14-16 °C. High levels of rainfall occur almost year-round (over 1100 mm per year), especially in winter. Climatic conditions vary in different parts of the city owing to geography such as hills, trees and ocean wind currents. Snow has never been recorded in Auckland, (although a heavy hailstorm in the 1950s was mistaken for snow by many residents), unlike some South island cities which may get snow most years. It has snowed north of Auckland at Kaikohe.

People


- See also: Culture of New Zealand

Cultures

Auckland serves as a home to many cultures. The majority of inhabitants (roughly 60%) claim European — predominantly British — descent, but substantial Maori and Pacific Island communities exist as well. Auckland has the largest Polynesian population of any city in the world. Comparably-sized communities of people of East Asian origin also live in Auckland, due to New Zealand's world-leading level of immigration, which flows primarily into Auckland. Ethnic groups from all corners of the world have a presence in Auckland, making it by far the country's most cosmopolitan city. It is estimated that over fourteen people from other countries immigrate to Auckland every day.

Religion

Like the rest of the country, more than half of Aucklanders are nominally Christian, but less than 10% regularly attend church and almost 40% profess no religious affiliation (2001 census figures). The main denominations are Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. Pentecostal and charismatic churches are the fastest growing. The charismatic and fundamentalist Destiny Church, headquartered in Auckland, has gained headlines because of its political activities. A higher percentage of Polynesian immigrants are regular churchgoers than other Aucklanders, although church attendance drops off in second or third generation Polynesian Aucklanders. Other immigrant cultures have added to the religious diversity of the city, bringing traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. There is also a small, long-established Jewish community. There is an even smaller Rationalist group. Western Central Auckland, particularly Mount Roskill, has been labelled the 'Bible Belt'.

Social perceptions

Aucklanders are viewed with varying degrees of dislike by some New Zealanders living outside Auckland. One perception of Aucklanders is that they are rich latte-sipping yuppies, with trendy but impractical political views. Some claim jokingly that Aucklanders think that "New Zealand stops at the Bombay Hills", the Bombay Hills forming the Auckland region's southern boundary. Some people living south of the hills agree with the statement, but regard "true" New Zealand as lying south, not north, of the hills. The word Jafa was coined as an insulting nickname for Aucklanders, but Aucklanders have robbed the word of its sting by enthusiastically embracing it. See the Jafa article for more on outsiders' attitudes. There are stereotypes about residents in some parts of Auckland. These stereotypes can be a badge of honour, or an insult, depending on how they are used, and by whom.
- Westies - people living in the western suburbs of Auckland (particularly those of Waitakere City), from Henderson to the Waitakere Ranges. As a derogatory term, "westie" is similar to bogan, trailer trash or chav.
- South Aucklanders - people who live at the southern end of the city; the term is predominantly used to refer to a low socio-economic group with a high unemployment rate and a large population of Pacific Islanders, although there are quite a few affluent areas in South Auckland.
- East Aucklanders - residents in the eastern suburbs of the Auckland isthmus, including a large Asian (Chinese) population in Howick and surrounding areas.
- Shoreboy/girl - someone from the North Shore. Generally percieved as 'spoilt rich kids' since the area is quite affluent. The term is somewhat analogous to the stereotype of the Valley girl in Los Angeles, though not as extreme.

Lifestyle

Attractive aspects of Auckland life are its mild climate, plentiful employment and educational opportunities, and numerous leisure facilities. For quality of life, Auckland currently ranks 8th equal behind Zurich and Geneva in a survey of the world's top 55 cities. (Link: [http://www.citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html Mercer Consulting quality of life survey])

Leisure

Geneva Auckland is popularly known as the "City of Sails" because the harbour is usually dotted with hundreds of yachts. The Viaduct Basin hosted two America's Cup challenges, and its cafes, restaurants, and clubs add to Auckland's vibrant nightlife. High Street, Queen Street, Ponsonby Road, and Karangahape Road are also very popular with urban socialites. Newmarket and Parnell are upmarket shopping centres. Otara's and Avondale's famous fleamarkets and Victoria Park Market are a colourful alternative shopping experience. Waitemata Harbour has popular beaches at Mission Bay, Devonport, Takapuna, Long Bay and Maraetai, and the west coast has popular surf spots at Piha and Muriwai. Many Auckland beaches are patrolled by Surf Lifesaving clubs which are part of the Surf Lifesaving Northern Region. Pleasant ferry trips go to Devonport, Waiheke Island and Rangitoto Island. Pleasant picnic spots are at Auckland Domain, Albert Park, One Tree Hill Domain and Western Springs. Auckland has its fair share of rugby and cricket grounds (notably Eden Park), and venues for motorsports, tennis, badminton, swimming, soccer, rugby league, and many other sports. Every year in March, an 8.4km (5.2 mile) fun-run known as "Round the Bays" starts in the city and goes along the waterfront to the suburb of St Heliers. It attracts many tens of thousands of people and has been an annual event since 1972. The Auckland Town Hall and Aotea Centre host conferences and cultural events such as theatre, kapa haka, and opera. Many national treasures are displayed at the Auckland Art Gallery, such as the work of Colin McCahon. Other significant cultural artefacts reside at the Auckland War Memorial Museum, the National Maritime Museum, and the Museum of Transport and Technology (MOTAT). Exotic creatures can be observed at the Auckland Zoo and Kelly Tarlton's Underwater World. Movies and rock concerts (notably, the "Big Day Out") are also well patronised.

Work

Big Day Out]] Every business day, many professional workers commute from all points of the city to downtown Auckland. Most major international corporations have an Auckland office. The most expensive office space is around lower Queen Street and the Viaduct Basin. A large proportion of the technical and trades workforce is based in the industrial zones of South Auckland.

Housing

The most common residence of Aucklanders is a bungalow on a "quarter acre" (1,000 m²), with the resulting large urban sprawl and reliance on motor vehicles. The regional council is trying to curb this trend, with housing density strategies such as more townhouses and apartments, and prohibiting subdivision of properties on the city fringes.

Transport

quarter acre

Road and rail

Auckland has a significant traffic congestion problem. An extensive motorway network, planned decades ago during the height of the road building era, remains incomplete as of 2005. It is unlikely that this original plan will every be built in its entirety, however a number of crucial gaps do exist in the current network. Since 2001, several motorway construction projects began in and around the central motorway junction ("Spaghetti Junction"), while new routes are underway in the southwest of the city and along the upper harbour. Transport funding favours roads over public transport in Auckland, and indeed in New Zealand, and the planned motorway network is large for a city of Auckland's size. The Britomart Transport Centre which opened in July 2003 is a central interconnection point for buses, trains and ferries. During its planning period it provoked much controversy spanning multiple mayoral terms. During the 2001-2004 term the mayors of Auckland City and Manukau, John Banks and Sir Barry Curtis respectively, strongly advocated a proposal for an Eastern Transport Corridor, essentially a new motorway. Vociferous campaigners both supported and opposed the NZ$4 billion proposal throughout the term. John Banks subsequently lost the 2004 local body election, chiefly due to public opposition to the proposed motorway. The newly-elected Auckland City Council has a clear centre-left majority, and new Deputy Mayor Bruce Hucker announced in early November 2004 a major change in direction for Auckland City. Bus services provide the bulk of public transport, with commuter trains offering a limited service. However, recent investment in train services resulted in increased patronage of these services. The investment has focused on upgrading and refurbishing the current rolling stock and railway stations. Investment in new rail infrastructure remains limited, but there are signs this is changing. A recent project to double-track the western rail line, completed at a cost of NZD$23.2 million, has increased the frequency of train services on this line. Plans for light rail, mooted over the years, seem unlikely to proceed. The local government elections in September 2004 centred largely around candidates' policies on public transport, with the incumbent Auckland City mayor John Banks promoting the "Eastern Corridor" motorway plan, and his main rivals (former Auckland City mayor Christine Fletcher and businessman Dick Hubbard – the eventual winner) supporting public transport alternatives like light rail and improving existing bus and rail services. Auckland City Council has prepared plans for an underground railway connecting the Britomart Transport Centre to the western railway line. However due to the significant costs associated with a project of this size, and the prevailing attitudes towards public transport, it may be some time before the project begins. Increased population density around transport corridors and sustained inflated petrol prices may combine to make this project more attractive in the medium term. Also, recent patronage jumps in response to remedial improvements to the existing diesel powered rail network have resulted in greater support for plans for electrification, signal upgrades, station improvements and network expansion.

Airports

Auckland International Airport, New Zealand's largest airport, lies beside Manukau Harbour, in the southern suburb of Mangere, which is part of Manukau. It is a major base for Air New Zealand. Ongoing negotiations concern the development of a second airport at Whenuapai, a RNZAF airbase in Waitakere, to the northwest of the Auckland conurbation. As the air force is signalled to move to Ohakea base near Palmerston North, the feasibility of an international airport north of the city is being explored. Many private flights use the smaller airfield at Ardmore, south of the city but within the Auckland region. Dairy Flat to the north is used by light planes and some warbird enthusiasts. Mechanics Bay near the city centre, was the first international airport, used for many years as a base for flying boats of TEAL and amphibians of Tourist Air Travel and Sea Bee Air. It is now primarily used as a Heliport. A similar air force facility at Hobsonville has been sold to private boat builders.

Ferries

HobsonvilleA feature of Auckland transport is the popularity of commuting by ferry. North Shore residents avoid the chronic Harbour Bridge congestion by catching ferries from Devonport, Bayswater or Stanley Bay to the CBD. Ferries also connect the city with Rangitoto and Waiheke Islands, and with Half Moon Bay.

Landmarks and places

Waiheke Island
- Auckland's Sky Tower, the tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere, stands 328 m tall.
- Mount Eden's summit arguably offers Auckland's best views. It is the highest point in Auckland. However, there is local concern about the environmental impact the large numbers of tourist buses are having on the cone - they're said to be literally (if slowly) squashing it.
- One Tree Hill (Maungakiekie) - a volcanic cone which dominates the skyline in the southern inner suburbs.
- Mount Victoria although slightly out-of-the-way for the casual tourist, offers a spectacular view of the city. A brisk walk from the Devonport Ferry terminal, the cone is steeped in history as is the nearby North Head.
- Rangitoto Island - guards the entrance to Waitemata Harbour, and forms a prominent feature on the eastern horizon.
- Eden Park - the city's primary stadium and a frequent home for All Blacks rugby and Black Caps cricket matches.
- Ericsson Stadium - a stadium used mainly for rugby league and soccer matches.
- Western Springs Stadium - a natural amphitheatre used mainly for speedway races and rock and pop concerts.
- Aotea Square, Queen Street and Karangahape Road- the hub of downtown Auckland.
- Auckland Harbour Bridge - connecting Auckland and the North Shore, is an iconic symbol of Auckland.
- Viaduct Basin - Marina in downtown Auckland, venue for the America's Cup regatta 2000 and 2003. It is now a thriving commercial centre.
- Botany Town Centre, Howick - a complete shopping complex, one of the largest in Auckland including a cinema, bowling alley, food court and many shops to visit. Botany Town Centre, Howick

See also


- Auckland City, the territorial authority covering Auckland isthmus
- Auckland Grammar School, one of New Zealand's most prestigious and controversial schools
- Auckland (region), about the territorial authority of Auckland Region
- George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland

External links


- Auckland City Council: [http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/ aucklandcity.govt.nz]
- Tourism Auckland: [http://www.aucklandnz.com/ aucklandnz.com]
- Leisure & Lifestyle: [http://www.searchauckland.co.nz/ 1], [http://www.auckland-life.com 2], [http://www.zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=10101744 3], [http://www.nz.co.nz/nz/skyscroll/default.asp 4]
- Street maps: [http://www.wises.co.nz 1], [http://www.nzmaps.co.nz 2]
- Healthcare: [http://www.adhb.govt.nz/ Auckland], [http://www.whl.co.nz/ Waitemata], [http://www.cmdhb.govt.nz/ Counties Manukau]
- News: [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/ nzherald.co.nz]
- Transport: [http://www.rideline.co.nz/ Buses & trains], [http://traffic.transit.govt.nz/ Traffic-cams], [http://www.auckland-airport.co.nz/ Airport], [http://www.aucklandmotorways.co.nz/ Motorway Info]

References


- [http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/CommProfiles.nsf/FindInfobyArea/514500-au New Windsor community profile]
-
-
- .
- Category: Auckland category: Cities and towns in New Zealand category: Isthmuses Category: Coastal cities ko:오클랜드 (뉴질랜드) ja:オークランド (ニュージーランド)

Yacht

A yacht was originally defined as a light, fast sailing vessel used to convey important persons. In later parlance, the definition came to mean any vessel, other than a dinghy, propelled by sail, power or both and used for pleasure cruising and/or yacht racing. A sailing yacht can vary in overall length (LOA in yachting parlance) from about 6 m (20 feet) to well over 30 m (98 ft) or more. However, most privately owned yachts fall on the range of about 7 m to 14 m (about 23-46 ft); the cost of building and keeping a yacht rises quickly at greater lengths. Monohull yachts are typically fitted with a fixed or adjustable keel below the waterline to counterbalance the overturning force of wind on the vessel's sails. By contrast, multihull yachts (a catamaran is an example of this type of vessel) use two or more hulls widely separated from each other to provide a stable base that resists overturning. Until the 1950s almost all yachts were made of boards of wood (steel was also used for bigger yachts) but nowadays there is a much wider range of materials. Most common is fibreglass, but also steel, aluminium and even ferrocement are used. Wood is still used (traditional board based methods as well as modern technologies based on plywood, veneers and epoxy-glues etc.), but wood is mostly used when building individual boats, less often in industrial boat building. Modern yachts have efficient sail-plans that allow them to sail into the wind. This capability is the result of a sail plan and hull design (typically a sloop rig) that utilizes Bernoulli's principle to generate lift. Sailing yachts fall into three basic catergories: 'Weekender', 'Cruiser' and 'Racer'. Weekender yachts are small, sub-9.5 metre (30 feet) vessels. They often have twin-keels or lifting keels. This allows them to operate in shallow waters, and if needed 'dry out' – become beached as the tide falls, the hull shape (or twin-keel layout) allows the boat to sit upright when there is no water. Such boats are designed to undetake short journeys, rarely lasting more than 2 to 3 days (hence their name). Of course, in coastal areas long trips may be undertaken in a series of short hops. Weekenders usually only have a simple cabin, often consisting of a single 'saloon', with bedspace for 2-3 people, and clever use of ergonomics to allow both galley (kitchen) space, seating and space for navigation equipment. There is limited space for large stores of water/food. Weekenders tend to be slower vessels due to their small sail area, and due to their small size they can be overwhelmed by heavy seas. Most are single-mast 'Bermudan sloop' rigged vessels, with a single fore-sail (of the 'jib' or 'Genoa') type and a single Mainsail. Some are 'gaff' rigged. The smallest of this type--generally called pocket yachts or pocket cruisers can be trailed on special trailers behind vehicles to transport them by road. pocket cruiser 'Cruisers' are by the far the most common in private usage, making up most of the 7 m to 14 m (23 to 46 ft) range. These vessels can be quite complex in design, as designers try to find a balance between docile handling qualities, interior space, good light-wing performance and on-board comfort. The huge range of such craft, from dozens of builders worldwide make it hard to determine a specific description. However, most favour a teardrop-planform hull, with a wide, flat bottom and deep single-fin keel to give good stability. Most are single-mast 'Bermudan sloop' rigged vessels, with a single fore-sail (of the 'jib' or 'Genoa') type and a single Mainsail. Spinnaker sails, with huge areas, are often supplied for lightwind use. These types are often chosen as family vessels, especially those in the 8 to 12 metre (32 to 40 ft) range. Such a vessel will usually have many rooms below deck. Typically there will be 3 double-berth cabins, a single large saloon (galley, seating and navigation area) and a 'head' (toilet/showeroom). The interior will be finished in wood panelling, with plenty of storage space. Cruisers are quite capable of taking on long-range passages of many thousands of miles, so have large freshwater tanks. Such boats have a cruising speed of around 4-10 mph. This basic design is typical of the standard types produced by the major yacht-builders. Most of the large luxury yachts (30m+, 50 feet+) are also cruiser, but their design varies greatly as they usually are 'one off' designs to the specifc needs of the buyer. Racing yachts tend to have long (around 20 m, 50 ft) but very narrow hulls. This allows them to support a tall mast with a great sail area, whilst keeping the drag of a wide hull to a minimum. Speeds of up to 40 mph can be obtained in good condtions. Dedicated racing yachts sacrifice crew comfort for speed, having basic accommodation to reduce weight. Depending on the type of race, such a yacht may be crewed by as many as 15 people. At the other extreme there are 'single handed' races, where one person alone must control the yacht. Yacht races may be over a simple course of only a few miles, or epic trans-global contests such as the BT Global Challenge. Ocean racing yachts have very good sea-handling qualities, as they must be able to maintain good speeds in all but the heaviest conditions. However, the limits of their hull design mean that once conditions increase in severity above a certain level the long, narrow hull can become unstable and the tall rigging can break. This is why many races that fall into bad weather can suffer from many yachts capsizing or becoming de-masted. The motive force being the wind, sailing is more economical and environmentally friendly than any other means of propulsion. Motor yachts depend upon mechanical means for propulsion, typically an internal combustion engine that burns fossil fuels. These are more expensive to operate than sailing vessels due to fuel costs and the large engines typically used. A more economical hybrid type of vessel is a motor sailing yacht that can use either sail or motor propulsion (or both) as conditions dictate. Nearly all 'pure' sailing yachts are also equipped with a low-power internal-combustion engine for use in conditions of calm and for when entering or leaving difficult anchorages. Vessels less than 25ft in length generally carry a petrol outboard-motor of between 10 and 40 horsepower (7 and 30 kW). Larger vessels have in-board diesel engines, of between 20 and 100 horsepower (15 and 75 kW) depending on size. In the common 7 m to 14 m (23 to 46 ft) class, engine of 20 to 40 horsepower are the most common motor sailing yacht In recent years, small/medium-sized private yachts have evolved from fairly simple vessels with basic accommodation to sophisticated and luxurious boats. This is largely due to reduced hull-building costs brought about by the introduction of fibre-glass hulls, and increased automation and 'production line' techniques to yacht building, especially in Europe. In recent years the amount of electric equipment has been used on yachts. Even 20 years ago, it was not common for a 7 m (25 ft) yacht to have electric lighting. Now all but the smallest, most basic yachts have electric lighting, radio and navigation aids such as GPS. Yachts around 10 m (33 ft) bring in comforts such as hot water, pressurised water systems, refridgerators etc. Aids such as RADAR, echo-sounding and autopilot are common. This means that the auxillary engine now also performs the vital function of powering an alternator to provide electrical power and to recharge the yacht's on-board batteries. For yachts engaged on long-range cruising wind- and solar-powered generators can perform the same function. On the biggest, 30m+ luxury yachts, every modern convenience, from air conditioning to television systems is found. Sailing yachts of this size are often highly automated, with computer-controlled electric winches controlling the sails. Such complexity requires dedicated power-generation systems. Modern yachts are descendants of working vessels used for fishing and commerce. Famous examples of these types of vessels are fishing schooners such as Bluenose and square rigged tea clippers of the 19th century such as Flying Cloud. Tall ships are the modern descendants of the tradition of these commercial vessels. Yachting for pleasure was formerly the province of the wealthy due to expense and the manpower required (because the boats were big), but today has become the pastime of many worldwide. King Charles II of England is mentioned as enjoying the sport in the diaries of Samuel Pepys. In Britain, the sport of yachting became widely popular in the late Victorian (1837-1901) period. Queen Victoria and her family maintained a fleet of sail- and steam-yachts at her residence on the Isle of Wight. The town of Cowes on the island is still seen by many as the world home of yachting, hosting the famous Cowes Week sailing festival in the summer. Like most other yachting festivals, this consists mainly of organised yacht racing by both dedicated racing yachts and a series of 'class' events catering for the wide variety of non-dedicated yachts. Popular yachting spots:
- Auckland, New Zealand
- Fremantle, Western Australia
- Cowes, Isle of Wight
- Hamble, Hampshire, England
- Tollesbury, Essex, England
- The French Riviera
- Ft. Lauderdale, Florida
- San Francisco Bay, California
- Newport Beach, California
- Newport, Rhode Island
- West Coast of Scotland
- Hong Kong

See also


- catamaran
- dinghy sailing
- List of motor yachts by length
- marina
- sailing ship
- yacht racing
- yachting Category:Boat types Category:Sailboat types Category:Sailing ja:ヨット

Sail

A sail is any type of surface intended to generate thrust by being placed in a wind —in essence a vertically-oriented wing. Sails are used in sailing. Depending on the incident angle of the wind on the surface of the sail, one side of the sail will have a higher air pressure than the other one according to Bernoulli's principle. The difference in pressure will generate lift, causing the sail to be pulled towards the side of lower pressure. On a sailing boat, a keel or centreboard is used to convert this lateral force into forward movement of the boat with some sideways leaning, or 'heel'.

Use of sails

keel] Sails are primarily used at sea, on sailing ships as a propulsion system. For purposes of commerce, sails have been largely superseded by other forms of propulsion, such as the internal combustion engine. For recreation, however, sailing vessels remain popular. The most familiar type of sailboat, a small pleasure yacht, usually has a sail-plan called a sloop. This has two fore-and-aft sails: the mainsail and the jib. The mainsail extends aftward and is secured the whole length of its edges to the mast and to a boom also hung from the mast. The sails of tall ships are attached to wooden timbers or "spars". The jib is secured along its leading edge to a forestay (strong wire) strung from the top of the mast to the bowsprit on the bow (nose) of the boat. A genoa is also used on some boats. It is a type of jib that is larger, and cut so that it is fuller than an ordinary jib. Fore-and-aft sails can be switched from one side of the boat to the other, in order to alter the boat's course. When the boat's stern crosses the wind, this is called jibing; when the bow crosses the wind, it is called tacking. Tacking repeatedly from port to starboard and/or vice versa, called "beating", is done in order to allow the boat to follow a course into the wind. A primary feature of a properly designed sail is an amount of "draft", caused by curvature of the surface of the sail. When the sail is oriented into the wind, this curvature induces lift, much like the wing of an airplane. Modern sails are manufactured with a combination of broadseaming and non-stretch fabric (ref New technology below). The former adds draft, while the latter allows the sail to keep a constant shape as the wind pressure increases. The draft of the sail can be reduced in stronger winds by use of a cunningham and outhaul, and also by increasing the downward pressure of the boom. Other sail powered machines include ice yachts and windmills. Sail construction is governed by the science of aerodynamics.

Parts of the Sail

: Main article: Parts of a sail. Parts of a sail The lower edge of a triangular sail is called the "foot" of the sail, while the upper point is known as the "head". The lower two points of the sail, on either end of the foot, are called the "tack" (forward) and "clew" (aft). The forward edge of the sail is called the "luff" (from which derives the term "luffing", a rippling of the sail when the angle of the wind fails to maintain a good aerodynamic shape near the luff). The aft edge of a sail is called the "leech". Modern sails are designed such that the warp and the weft of the sailcloth are oriented parallel to the luff and foot of the sail. This places the most stretchable axis of the cloth along the diagonal axis (parallel to the leech), and makes it possible for sailors to reduce the draft of the sail by tensioning the sail, mast and boom in various ways. An alternative approach to sail design is that used in Junks, originally an oriental design. It uses horizontal sail curving to produce an efficient and easily controlled sail-plan. [http://www.friend.ly.net/~dadadata/junk/tutorial.html].

New technology

Sail producers are competing hard with the latest technology to produce the best, i.e. the most efficient sail: North sails with their 3DL sail, Doyle the 4D and Elvström Sobstad the Genesis sail. These sails are produced with carbon fibers and are glued/baked, compared to the old sewed cotton sails.

See also


- Sailing
- Points of sail
- Sail-plan
- Rigging
- Wing
- Rudder
- Fin
- Solar sail
- Sail twist

Types of sails


- Flanker
- Lugsail
- Ringtail
- Royal
- Skysail

External links

[http://www.wb-sails.fi/news/98_11_PerfectShape/Main.htm The quest for the perfect sailshape] Category:Sailing vessels and rigging Category:Marine propulsion Category:Sailboat anatomy simple:Sail



Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

The École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) is the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne in Switzerland. The EPFL is in the heart of Europe and is one of Europe's leading institutions of science and technology. The school was founded by the Swiss Federal Government with the stated mission to:
- Educate engineers and scientists
- Be a national center of excellence in science and technology
- Provide a hub for interaction between the scientific community and industry A similar institution in the German-speaking part of Switzerland is the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich (ETH Zurich or ETHZ).

History

Founded in 1853 as a private school under the name École Spéciale de Lausanne, it became the technical department of the public Académie de Lausanne in 1869. When the latter was reorganized and acquired the status of a university in 1890, the technical faculty changed its name to École d'Ingénieurs de l'Université de Lausanne. In 1946, it was renamed the École Polytechnique de l'Université de Lausanne (EPUL). In 1969, the EPUL was separated from the rest of the University of Lausanne and became a federal institute under its current name. The EPFL, like the ETHZ, is thus directly controlled by the Swiss federal government. In contrast, all other universities in Switzerland are controlled by their respective cantonal governments. The EPFL operates a nuclear reactor, Crocus, a Tokamak fusion reactor, and P3 bio-hazard facilities. Following the nomination of Patrick Aebischer as president in 2000, EPFL has started to develop into the field of life sciences. It will absorb the ISREC (Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research) by 2008.

Campus

Originally, the EPFL was in the center of Lausanne. In 1978, the EPFL moved to its new campus in Ecublens a suburb south-west of Lausanne on the shores of Lake Geneva. In 2002, the department of architecure also moved to the campus in Ecublens. This united all departments of the EPFL on the same site. 2002

Buildings

The campus consists of about 65 buildings on 136 acres. Built according to the growth of the school, the campus includes different types of architectures:
- Late 70s-80s: modularized building, used today by the Schools of Basic Sciences and Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering
- 90s: buildings with institutes from the Schools of Engineering Sciences and Techniques, Computer and Communication Sciences, and the Scientific Park (PSE)
- Modern: new buildings (2002-2004) with Microengineering, Communications and Architecture institutes and the School of Life Sciences The EPFL and the nearby University of Lausanne share an active sports center five minutes away from the EPFL campus on the shores of the Lake Geneva.

Facilities

Facilities are available on the campus for the students and staff:
- Libraries:
  - Central Library (BC)
  - Architecture (SG)
  - Chemistry (DC)
  - Computer and Communication Sciences (IC)
  - Materials Sciences (DM)
  - Physics (DP)
  - Mathematics (MA)
- Restaurant:
  - Le Copernic
- Cafeterias:
  - La Coupole
  - Le Corbusier
  - Le Parmentier
  - Le Vinci
  - BMX (Bâtiment des Matériaux)
- Bar:
  - Le Satellite
- Travel agencies
  - Swiss Federal Railroad
  - STA Travel
- Bank
  - UBS AG
- Radio
  - [http://fb.epfl.ch Fréquence Banane] Student radio

Organization

The EPFL is organised into seven schools, themselves formed of institutes that group research units (laboratories or chairs) around common themes.

Schools and sections

The EPFL is constituted of the following Schools:
- [http://enac.epfl.ch/en/ ENAC] (Environnement naturel, architectural et construit – Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering) ::architecture, civil engineering, Environmental Sciences and Engineering (agronomy)
- [http://ic.epfl.ch/ I&C] (Informatique et communications – Computer and Communication Sciences) ::computer science and telecommunications
- [http://sb.epfl.ch/en SB] (Sciences de base – Basic Sciences) ::mathematics, physics and chemistry
- [http://sti.epfl.ch/index.en.html STI] (Sciences et techniques de l'ingénieur – Engineering Sciences and Techniques) ::Mechanical engineering, Microengineering, Materials Science and Engineering
- [http://sv.epfl.ch/sv_E.html SV] (Sciences de la vie – Life Sciences) ::life sciences
- [http://cdh.epfl.ch/accueil.php CdH] (Collège des humanités – Sociology and humanities)
- [http://cdm.epfl.ch/homepage.php CDM] (Collège du Management de la Technologie et Entrepreneuriat – College of Management of Technology)

Students and traditions

Statistics

life sciences In 1946, there were 360 students at the EPUL. In 1969, the EPFL numbered 1,400 students and 55 professors. The university continued to grow rapidly, and in 2002, there were 5,872 students enrolled. In 2004 there are more than 9000 people at the EPFL. About 6000 of these are students, with the remainder consisting of professors, assistants and even entrepreneurs located in the Parc Scientifique of the EPFL. There are over 80 nationalities at the EPFL, with over 50% of the teaching staff coming from outside of Switzerland. The EPFL have acted as advisors for the Alinghi project, leading to a success at the America's Cup in New Zealand in 2003. The EPFL is also developing a sun-powered glider, Solar Impulse, designed to be completely autonomous (capable of circumnavigation). Bertrand Piccard is the intended pilot for the demonstration of the glider. There is also a sensor network installed in the I&C building called [http://sensorscope.epfl.ch SensorScope] which reports live temperature and light measurements. The EPFL holds the only nuclear reactor of the French-speaking part of Switzerland, Crocus.

Notable alumni and project

External links and references


- [http://www.epfl.ch/Eindex.html EPFL online]
- [http://associations.epfl.ch/ Associations at EPFL]
- [http://wwww.solar-impulse.com/ Solar Impulse]

Photographs

Image:EPFL_Piccard_avenue.jpg|A view of the Piccard Avenue. Image:EPFL_CE.jpg|Inner corridors in the East Center Image:EPFL_Stalingrad_1.jpg|SG Place Image:EPFL_Stalingrad_2.jpg|SG Place Image:Biowall 2.jpg|the "Biowall" Image:Epfl.jpg|Aerial view Follow [http://panorama.epfl.ch this link] for a live panoramic view taken with a 360° camera mounted on the I&C building

See also


- GNUWin
- Logitech
- Alinghi
- Solar Impulse EPFL als:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne

New Zealand

New Zealand or Aotearoa, the Land of the Long White Cloud, is a country of two large islands and many smaller islands in the south-western Pacific Ocean. New Zealand is notable for its isolation, being separated from Australia on the northwest by the Tasman Sea, some 2,000 km wide. The closest neighbours to the north are New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga. The population of New Zealand is mostly of European descent, with the indigenous Māori as the largest minority. Non-Māori Polynesian and Asian peoples are also significant minorities, especially in the cities. Officially, Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and is represented in the country by a non-political Governor-General; though the Queen has no real political influence. Political power is held by the Prime Minister who is leader of the Government in the democratically elected Parliament of New Zealand. The monarch's Realm of New Zealand also includes the Cook Islands and Niue, which are entirely self-governing; Tokelau, which is moving towards self-government, and New Zealand's claim in Antarctica.

History

New Zealand is one of the most recently settled major land masses. Polynesian settlers arrived in their waka some time between 800 and 600 years ago to establish the indigenous Māori culture. Settlement of the Chatham Islands to the south-east of New Zealand produced the Moriori people but it is disputed whether they moved there from New Zealand or elsewhere in Polynesia. Most of New Zealand was divided into tribal territories called rohe, resources within which were controlled by an iwi ('tribe'). Usually no two iwi had overlapping rohe. Māori adapted to eating the local marine resources, flora and fauna for food, hunting the giant flightless moa (which soon became extinct), and ate the Polynesian Rat and kumara (sweet potato), which they introduced to the country. The first Europeans known to reach New Zealand were led by Abel Janszoon Tasman, who sailed up the west coast of the South and North islands in 1642. He named it Staten Landt, believing it to be part of the land Jacob Le Maire had discovered in 1616 off the coast of Chile. Staten Landt appeared on Tasman's first maps of New Zealand, but this was changed by Dutch cartographers to Nova Zeelandia, after the Dutch province of Zeeland, some time after Hendrik Brouwer proved the South American land to be an island in 1643. The Latin Nova Zeelandia became Nieuw Zeeland in Dutch. Lieutenant James Cook subsequently called the archipelago New Zealand, although the names he chose for the North and South islands were rejected, and the main three islands became known as North, Middle and South, with the Middle Island being later called the South Island. Cook began extensive surveys of the islands in 1769, leading to European whaling expeditions and eventually significant European colonisation. From as early as the 1780s, Māori had encounters with European sealers and whalers. Acquisition of muskets by those iwi in close contact with European visitors destabilised the existing balance of power between Māori tribes and there was a temporary but intense period of bloody inter-tribal warfare, known as the Musket Wars, that only ceased when all iwi were so armed. Concern about the exploitation of Māori by Europeans, Church Missionary Society lobbying and French interest in the region led the British to annex New Zealand by Royal Proclamation in January 1840. To legitimise the British annexation, Lieutenant Governor William Hobson had been dispatched in 1839; he hurriedly negotiated the Treaty of Waitangi with northern iwi on his arrival. The Treaty was signed in February, and in recent years it has come to be seen as the founding document of New Zealand. The Māori translation of the treaty promised the Māori tribes "tino rangatiratanga" would be preserved in return for cedeing kawanatanga, which the English versions translates as "chieftainship" for "sovereignty"; the real meanings are now disputed. Disputes over land sales and sovereignty caused the New Zealand land wars which took place between 1845 and 1872. In 1975 the Treaty of Waitangi Act established the Waitangi Tribunal, charged with hearing claims of Crown violations of the Treaty of Waitangi dating back to 1840. Some Māori tribes and the Moriori never signed the treaty. Although New Zealand was initially administered as a part of the Australian colony of New South Wales, it became a colony in its own right in 1841. European settlement progressed more rapidly than anyone anticipated, and settlers soon outnumbered Māori. Self-government was granted to the settler population in 1852. The first capital of New Zealand was Kororareka (known today as Russell) but shortly afterwards moved to Auckland. There were political concerns following the discovery of gold in Central Otago in 1861 that the South Island would form a separate colony. So in 1865 the capital was offically moved to the more central city of Wellington. New Zealand was involved in a Constitutional Convention in March 1891 in Sydney, New South Wales, along with the then-colonies of Australia. This was to consider a potential constitution for the proposed federation between the then-British Colonies of Australasia. New Zealand lost interest in joining Australia in a federation following this convention. New Zealand became an independent dominion on 26 September 1907 by royal proclamation. Full independence was granted by the United Kingdom Parliament with the Statute of Westminster in 1931; it was taken up upon the Statute's adoption by the New Zealand Parliament in 1947. Since then New Zealand has been a sovereign constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations.

Politics

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. Under the New Zealand Royal Titles Act (1953), Queen Elizabeth II is Queen of New Zealand and is represented as head of state by the Governor-General, Dame Silvia Cartwright. The New Zealand Parliament has only one chamber, the House of Representatives which usually seats 120 members of Parliament. Parliamentary elections are every three years under a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP). The 2005 General Election created an 'overhang' of one extra seat (occupied by the Māori Party), due to that party winning more seats in constituencies than its proportional entitlement. There is no single written constitution; however, the Constitution Act (1986) is the principal formal statement of New Zealand's constitutional structure. The Governor-General has the power to appoint and dismiss Prime Ministers and to dissolve Parliament. The Governor-General also chairs the Executive Council which is a formal committee consisting of all ministers of the Crown. Members of the Executive Council are required to be members of Parliament, and most are also in Cabinet. Cabinet is the most senior policy-making body and is led by the Prime Minister who is also the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. The current Prime Minister is Helen Clark of the Labour Party. She has served two complete terms as Prime Minister and has begun her third. On 17 October 2005 she announced that she had come to a complex arrangement that guaranteed the support of enough parties for her Labour-led coalition to govern. The core of the coalition is a cabinet consisting of Labour Party ministers and Jim Anderton, the Progressive Party's only MP. In addition to the parties represented in cabinet the leaders of New Zealand First and