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Tretji Rajh

Tretji rajh

Tretji rajh (nemško Das Dritte Reich) oz. Velikonemški tretji rajh je oznaka za nemško državo v času nacizma med leti 1933 in 1945.

Vodstvo

Vodja (Der Führer) je bil Adolf Hitler, ki je imel diktatorska pooblastila.

Politična situacija v tretjem rajhu

Šolstvo in mladina v tretjem rajhu

Glejte Hitlerjeva mladina.

Oborožene sile

Rasa in življenski prostor

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- holokavst
- seznam osebnosti Tretjega rajha Kategorija:Propadle države
- ja:ナチス・ドイツ

Rajh

Rajh je slovenska popačenka nemške besede Das Reich, kar pomeni država. S tem izrazom se predvsem označujejo tri obdobja v nemški državnosti:
- Prvi rajh,
- Drugi rajh in
- Tretji rajh.
-

Država

Držáva je geografsko področje in neodvisna politična enota s svojo lastno vladavino, zakoni, pogosto tudi z ustavo, policijo, oboroženimi silami, davčnimi pravili in prebivalstvom. Nekaterim državam, kot so Slovenija, Francija in Izrael, rečemo nacionalne države, ker v njih prevladuje en narod. Druge države, kot so Švica, Španija in Združeno kraljestvo, so večnacionalne države, ker se prebivalstvo deli na več narodov. Kljub temu se nekatere od njih imajo za nacionalne države. Včasih se tudi upravni deli držav z določeno kulturo ali zgodovino imenujejo »dežele« ali »države«; tako se, denimo, imenujejo sestavne enote ZDA ali Anglija, Škotska in Wales v Združenem kraljestvu, čeprav so to praktično sestavni deli (mednarodno priznane) večje države.

Vrste držav


- vazalna država
- križarska država

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- države sveta
- propadle države sveta
- izmišljena država
- ja:国 simple:Country zh-cn:国家 zh-tw:國家

Nacizem

Nacionalsocializem (skrajšano nacizem) je vrsta skrajno totalitarističnega, nacionalističnega in agresivnega fašističnega gibanja, ideologije in političnega sistema. Izraz se uporablja v povezavi z diktatorsko Nemčijo v letih 1933-1945, imenovano tudi Tretji rajh (Das Dritte Reich), ko je bila na oblasti Nacionalsocialistična nemška delavska stranka (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei - NSDAP) pod vodstvom Adolfa Hitlerja. Nacisti trdijo, da je nemški, arijski narod višji od ostalih. V sodobni Nemčiji je nacizem prepovedan, vendar neonacisti, ki se trudijo za njegovo oživitev, še vedno delujejo po Nemčiji in svetu. Kategorija:Tretji rajh
- Kategorija:Politična gibanja ja:ナチズム simple:Nazism

Leto

Léto je pojem za vsakršno časovno obdobje, ki izhaja iz obhodnega časa Zemljinega tira (ali kateregakoli planeta) okoli Sonca. V astronomiji je določeno več vrst let:
- siderično leto (ali zvezdno leto): dejanski obhodni čas Zemlje v katerem enkrat obkroži Sonce, merjen v nepomičnem sestavu (kot so nepomične zvezde, latinsko sidus). Povprečna dolžina sideričnega leta je: :: 365,256363051 dni za epoho J2000 (1. januar 2000, 12h zemeljski čas).
- tropsko leto
- anomalistično leto
- ekliptično leto
- julijansko leto
- Gaussovo leto traja 365,2568983 in je izpeljano iz Gaussove gravitacijske konstante k, ki je številčna vrednost splošne gravitacijske konstante κ, izražene v enotah Sončeve mase. Leta 1976 je Mednarodna astronomska zveza (IAU) preko Gaussovega leta še natančneje določila astronomsko enoto. Brezmasni delec bi na tej razdalji v nemotenemu tiru imel obhodni čas natanko 1 Gaussovega leta.
- Besslovo leto (annus fictus) je tropsko leto, ko srednje sonce doseže ekliptično dolžino 280°. To je skoraj vedno ali blizu 1. januarja. Približna enačba za izračun trenutnega časa v Besselovih letih iz julijanskega dneva (JD) je: :: B = 2000 + (JD - 2451544,53)/365,242189
- leto sveta (Anno mundi)

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- koledarsko leto, proračunsko leto, prestopno leto, Sončevo leto. Kategorija:Druge enote Kategorija:Časovne enote Kategorija:Koledarji ja:年 ms:Tahun simple:Year zh-min-nan:Nî

1933

Stoletja: 19. stoletje - 20. stoletje - 21. stoletje Desetletja: 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. 1920. - 1930. - 1940. 1950. 1960. 1970. 1980. Leta: 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 - 1933 - 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 Meseci: januar februar marec april maj junij julij avgust september oktober november december ---- Dogodki:
- 1. januar
- 30. januar - Adolf Hitler postane kancler Nemčije
- 24. marec - Reichstag sprejme zakon o popolni oblasti kanclerja
- 27. marec - Japonska izstopi iz Društva narodov
- 21. oktober - Tretji rajh izstopi iz Društva narodov Rojstva
- 15. april - Boris Natanovič Strugacki, ruski pisatelj, scenarist
- 30. april - Willie Nelson, ameriški pevec countryja, kitarist, glasbenik, skladatelj, filmski igralec
- 9. oktober - sir Peter Mansfield, angleški fizik, nobelovec 2003 Smrti
- 25. september - Paul Ehrenfest, avstrijski fizik, matematik (
- 1880) Nobelove nagrade
- Glej tudi 0-1933 ja:1933年 ko:1933년 ms:1933 simple:1933 th:พ.ศ. 2476

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler [ádolf hítler], nemški diktator in nacistični voditelj avstrijskega rodu,
- 20. april 1889, Braunau am Inn pri Linzu, Gornjeavstrijsko, Avstrija, † 30. april 1945, Berlin, Nemčija. Nemčija Hitler je bil diktator nacistične Nemčije in vodja nacistične stranke. Od leta 1933 do svoje smrti je bil tudi nemški kancler, vodja vlade in države. Bil je nadarjen govorec z nedoumljivim obnašanjem. Smatrajo ga za enega od najpomembnejših vodij v svetovni zgodovini. Uspelo mu je potegniti Nemčijo iz ekonomske krize po 1. svetovni vojni in na svojem višku je nadziral velik del Evrope. Vseobsežna vojna na vseh straneh v 2. svetovni vojni je v Evropi povzročila divje uničenje in rasno politiko nacistične Nemčije, katere posledica je bil skrajno nečloveški holokavst, množično uničevanje, predvsem judovskih in slovanskih narodov, ki je povzročil smrt in razselitev milijonov ljudi. Ko je bila Nemčija že popolnoma v ruševinah in Rdeča armada le nekaj metrov stran, je v svojem berlinskem podzemnem bunkerju, skupaj z ženo Evo Braun, naredil samomor.

Življenje

Rodbina in mladost

Rodil se je 20. aprila 1889 v mestecu Braunau am Inn, 90 km vzhodno od Linza, v deželi Zgornja Avstrija, takrat na meji avstro-ogrskega cesarstva. Oče Alois Hitler, rojen kot Alois Schicklgruber, je bil carinski uradnik, mati Klara Pölzl pa očetova nečakinja in tretja soproga. Oče Alois Schicklgruber, nezakonski sin Marije Anne Schicklgruber (včasih pisano Schickelgruber), je že štiridesetleten prevzel priimek svojega krušnega očeta Johana Georga Hiedlerja v spremenjeni pisavi. O rodu Adofa Hitlerja po očetovi strani je več hipotez. Po eni, ki naj bi bila manj verjetna, je bil njegov ded, Aloisov oče, judovskega rodu. Alois Hitler je imel skupno šest otrok, od katerih sta odrasla le Adolf in najmlajša sestra Paula. Očeta je Adolf Hitler v življenjepisu Mein Kampf sam opisal kot »vzkipljivega tirana«, vendar ni navedel ravnanja, ki bi bilo do otrok bolj trdo, kot je bilo takrat v navadi. Po pričevanjih znancev je bil oče Alois do žene in otrok hladen in grob. Že možnost, da bi bil Adolf Hitler delno judovskega rodu, mu je v kasnejšem bolestnem protijudovstvu morala biti v breme. Adolf Hitler je v Linzu dokončal pet let osnovne šole. Že v tistem času ga je veselilo risanje. Leta 1907 se je preselil na Dunaj, da bi študiral slikarstvo, vendar so ga na akademiji dvakrat zavrnili. Preživljal se je s prodajanjem slik in izdelovanjem plakatov, saj ni želel študirati arhitekture, kot so mu priporočili na akademiji. Istega leta mu je umrla mati. Zdravnik, ki je ni mogel rešiti pred smrtjo, je bil po naključju Žid. Do svojega petindvajsetega leta je živel na Dunaju, potem pa se je preselil v München. Vsa ta leta je bil brez poklica. Njegov edini dohodek je bil prodaja lastnih slik.

Vstop v politiko

Zaradi nezadovoljstva nad razmajano ureditvijo Habsburškega cesarstva se je leta 1913 izognil vpoklicu v vojsko in pobegnil v München. Tam se je ob izbruhu prve svetovne vojne pridružil bavarski vojski. Hitlerju je vstop v vojno prinesel nekaj čisto novega. Tu se je končno lahko enačil z drugimi in imel enake možnosti kot ostali. 7. oktobra 1916 je bil ranjen v bitki pri Somi. Marca 1917 se je vrnil na fronto, kjer je bil zaradi dobrega bojevanja odlikovan z železnim križcem prve in druge stopnje, kar je bilo za njegov stan pehotništva nenavadno. Kasneje se je na tej fronti zastrupil z iperitom in vojno premirje preživel v bolnici. Bil je razočaran in zagrenjen. Tako kot ostali vojaki se je spraševal o smislu vojne, ki je tako dolgo trajala. Iz bolnice se je vrnil v Munchen, kjer je delal pri armadi in miril skrajneže v mestu.

Hitlerjev vpliv na množice

Jeseni leta 1919 je Hitler začel doživljati svoj politični prodor. Stopil je v Nemško delavsko stranko, ki jo je kmalu preimenoval v Nacionalistično nemško delavsko stranko (NSDAP - National socialistiche Deutsche Arbeitpartie). Do leta 1923 se je povezala z ostalimi domoljubnimi zvezami bavarske prestolnice. 24. februarja leta 1920 je Hitler prvič govoril zbrani množici in dosegel velik uspeh. Kmalu je odkril, da lahko s svojim entuziastičnim govorjenjem vpliva na množice in je znal spraviti najrazličnejše ljudi na zborovanjih v trans. Imel je hipnotično sposobnost koncentrirane odločnosti, s katero se je vsakič polastil kolektivne podzavesti. Na tak način je ljudi, ki so imeli na začetku popolnoma drugačne nazore in razmišljanja, prepričal in jih pridobil na svojo stran. To Hitlerjevo delovanje na množice je bil dolgo časa edini politični kapital, ki pa je močno vplival tudi nanj. Ugotovil je, da lahko obvladuje množice in to ga je naredilo izredno samozavestnega. Vendar je sčasoma podlegel svojim ideologijam in jim je tako vztrajno verjel, da ni znal več razločevati, kaj od tega je še dobro za Nemčijo in kaj ne. Novembra leta 1923 so ga obsodili na pet let zapora zaradi napada na ministrstvo, pri čemer je bilo ranjenih 16 nacistov in trije policisti. Hitler je v zaporu ostal le devet mesecev, na račun desničarskih simpatizerjev v sodstvu Weimarske republike. Tako je bil tako izpuščen še pred božičem leta 1924.

Hitlerjev vzpon

Po vrnitvi iz zapora se je njegov položaj na skrajni desnici nemške politike utrdil. Leta 1927 je organiziral Hitlerjevo mladino (Hitler Jugend) za dečke stare od 15 do 18 let, za dekleta pa Bund Deutscher Mädel in za ženske Frauenschaften. Leta 1928 so bile v Nemčiji parlamentarne volitve, kjer je Hitlerjeva stranka dobila le 2 odstotka glasov. Dve leti kasneje je vladajoča koalicija razpadla, NSDAP pa je postala največja samostojna stranka v državi. Zlom Newyorške borze leta 1929 je zelo zamajal že tako krhko gospodarstvo v Nemčiji, kar je Hitler izkoristil v svoj prid. 14. septembra je prišlo do novih volitev, kjer je Hitlerjeva stranka prišla v parlament kot druga najmočnejša stranka. Leta 1932 so bile predsedniške volitve, na katerih sta sodelovala tedanji predsednik Paul von Hindenburg in Hitler. Po dveh krogih je zmagal Hindenburg s 53 odstotki glasov. Hitler se je sedaj videl v vlogi kanclerja, za kar se je potegoval preostanek leta. Po številnih političnih spletkah mu je 30. januarja leta 1933 končno uspelo. Postal je nemški kancler. Sedaj je hotel oblikovati novo vlado in si s tem zagotoviti podporo v svojih načrtih. Pri tem je popolnoma zmanipuliral Hindenburga, tako da je ta 5. marca leta 1933 razpisal nove volitve. Hitlerjeva stranka (NSDAP) je pri tem dobila 44 odstotkov glasov. Ker je potreboval absolutno večino, se je povezal z DNVP (Deutsche National Volkspartie - Nemška narodna ljudska stranka). To mu je omogočilo nenadzorovano vladanje. Vse politične sovražnike so aretirali in jih kasneje odvedli v koncentracijska taborišča. Tja so kasneje zapirali tudi homoseksualce, pripadnike verskih sekt, potepuhe, delomrzneže, prostozidarje ter Cigane in Jude. Hitler je državno službo očistil političnih nasprotnikov in Judov. Zahteval je sprejetje Zakona za ukinitev gorja ljudi in rajh, s katerim bi v resnici popolnoma onemogočil obstoj demokracije in legaliziral lastno diktaturo. Edini nedotaknjeni ustanovi sta bili Cerkev in armada, ker se je zavedal, da bi bilo njuno maščevanje usodno za njegov režim. Že zelo postarani predsednik Hindenburg je zdravstveno vedno bolj slabel. Hitler je v tem videl sijajno idejo. Wernerju von Blombergu, ministru za obrambo, je predlagal, da bi postal Hindenburgov naslednik. S tem naj bi izboljšal razmere v vojski in mornarici. Nemška vojska ga je pri tem podprla in si s tem zapečatila svojo usodo. Sedaj je imel Hitler vso oblast. Domneval je, da ga hoče Ernest Röhm, vodja SA, odstraniti. Med njima se je vnel prepir, neugoden za takratne razmere. Hindenburg je od Hitlerja zahteval takojšno ureditev države. V nasprotnem primeru bi bil prisiljen oddati armadi nadzor nad državo. 28. junija so Röhma izključili iz oficirske zveze, armada pa je javno prestopila na Hitlerjevo stran. 2. avgusta 1934 je predsednik Hindenburg umrl in Hitler je prevzel njegove dolžnosti. Združil je vlogo kanclerja in predsednika ter postal vrhovni poveljnik oboroženih sil in državni poglavar, postal je der Führer.

Hitlerjevo delovanje v drugi svetovni vojni

Prva zadeva, ki jo je hotel uresničiti, je bilo zavzetje Avstrije, kar mu je 25. julija 1934 tudi uspelo. Nato se je lotil zasedbe demilitariziranega Porenja. 1. marca leta 1936 je dosegel ponovno osvojitev Porenja. Francija se na to ni odzvala. Hitler je imel izdelan načrt, ki je govoril o ciljih nemške politike in o tako imenovanem Lebensraumu – življenjskem prostoru, ki naj bi ga Nemčija zavzela, kar je kasneje leta 1943 začel uresničevati. Leta 1936 se je Hitler skupaj z Benitom Mussolinijem vmešal v špansko vojno. 9. in 10. novembra leta 1938 je prišlo do tako imenovane Kristalne noči, ko so požgali sinagoge, izropali judovska podjetja in 30 tisoč moških poslali v koncentracijska taborišča. Vzrok temu je bil dolgotrajno razhajanje notranje vlade in vrhovnih generalov. Hitler je tako pridobil priložnost, da zamenja določene ljudi v vladi in jih nadomesti s sebi enako mislečimi. Ukinil je vojno ministrstvo in ustanovil organizacijo, ki je v drugi svetovni vojni postala znana kot Vrhovna komanda oboroženih sil. 10. aprila 1938 je Avstrija formalno potrdila priključitev k Nemčiji, kar imenujemo anšlus. Tako so bila odprta vrata proti Češkoslovaški in celotni jugovzhodni Evropi. Hitler je načrtoval nenadni napad na Češkoslovaško, pri tem pa naj bi tudi rešil vprašanje Sudetskih Nemcev. Angleški premier Neville Chamberlain je pomišljal o ukrepih zaradi sprejema Hitlerjevih zahtev. Ta mu je pojasnil, da morajo Nemci, ki živijo na Češkem zaradi občutka manjvrednosti priti nazaj v Nemčijo. Pri tem naj bi ostala Češkoslovaška ostala popolnoma nevtralna. Hitler se s tem ni strinjal. Nova zahteva je bila, naj bi 1. oktobra sudetsko deželo zavzele nemške čete. Chemberlain je ugovarjal nad tem, da Čehom, ki bodo zapuščali Sudete ne bo ponujena nobena odškodnina. Tako so Hitler, Mussolini, Edouard Daladier in Chamberlain podpisali Münchenski sporazum, ki je nemški vojski dovolil, da 1. oktobra vkoraka v Češko. Predstavnika Češkoslovaške, ki sta protestirala, nista dosegla ničesar. Hitler se je medtem pripravljal na osvojitev celotne Češke in Moravske. Tako je 14. marca 1939 pod pretvezo zaščite nad novo nastalo neodvisno državo zavzel Slovaško. Še isti dan je češki predsednik Emil Hacha sprejel ponujeno kapitulacijo in s tem podpisal konec svoje države. Naslednji dan je Hitler zmagoslavno prišel v Prago in Češkoslovaška je prenehala obstajati. 3. aprila 1939 je Hitler začel s pripravami za napad na Poljsko. 6. aprila je poljski zunanji minister podpisal sporazum o vzajemni pomoči z Veliko Britanijo, kar je kazalo na to, da se Poljska ob napadu ne bo kar tako uklonila. Britanska vlada je 8. maja zavrnila sovjetski predlog o vojaški zvezi. Posledica tega je bila, da so se Rusi začeli vse bolj zbliževati z Nemci. Hitler je 22. maja z Mussolinijem podpisal jekleni pakt – vojaško zavezništvo, kateremu se je nato pridružila še Japonska, medtem ko je z Rusijo sklenil pakt o nenapadanju. Hitler je vojno želel omejiti le na Poljsko, obenem pa se je bal vojne z Veliko Britanijo in Francijo, zato ju je zavajal z lažnimi obljubami o miru. Da bi se izognil britanski intervenciji, je datum napada na Poljsko ves čas prestavljal, 1. septembra pa se je končno odločil za napad. Velika Britanija in Francija ob tem nista storili nič, Hitlerju pa sta vojno napovedali šele 3. septembra. 9. aprila 1940 je Hitler napadel Dansko in Norveško, 10. maja pa Belgijo in Nizozemsko. Njegova naslednja žrtev je bila Francija, ki je 22. junija z njim podpisala premirje. Francijo so razdelili na dva dela; na osvojeni del s sedežem v Parizu in na neosvojeno Vichysko Francijo, kjer je maršal Petain sodeloval z Nemci. 15. avgusta se je Hitler odločil za bombni napad na Anglijo. S pomočjo radarjev se je Anglija ubranila nemškega napada, Hitler je tako doživel svoj prvi poraz. Hitler je imel vse več težav z osvojenimi državami, usoden pa je bil napad na Sovjetsko zvezo 22. junija 1941. V odločilni bitki pri Stalingradu 31. januarja 1943 je Nemčija doživela velik poraz, ki je pomenil začetek konca tretjega rajha. 8. septembra 1943 je Italija kapitulirala in kasneje napovedala vojno Nemčiji. 6. junija 1944 so se ameriške in britanske vojaške sile izkrcale v Normandiji pri Calaisu. Hitler je bil takrat že živčna razvalina. Nemčija se je samo še branila, hrbet pa so mu obrnili tudi nekoč zvesti sodelavci, ki so spoznali, da ni več možnosti za zmago. 20. julija 1944 so nanj celo izvedli atentat, ki pa je bil neuspešen. 25. aprila 1945 so zavezniki vstopili v Berlin. Hitler je bil takrat že v svojem podzemnem bunkerju. 30. aprila se je poročil s svojo dolgoletno ljubico Evo Braun, nato pa skupaj z njo in svojimi najožjimi sodelavci naredil samomor.

Glej tudi


- seznam diktatorjev
- seznam avstrijskih nacistov Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler, Adolf ja:アドルフ・ヒトラー ko:아돌프 히틀러 ms:Adolf Hitler simple:Adolf Hitler th:อดอล์ฟ ฮิตเลอร์

Diktator

Diktator je vladar države, kateri odloča o vsem on sam (kot absolutist v času Marije Terezije). Zaničuje in ne upošteva demokracije, ne sestavlja vlade in državnega zbora. Nekateri diktatorji so ljudjem stregli z življenje da so si utrdili oblast. Znani diktatorji so bili Adolf Hitler, Josif Visarovič Džugašvili - Stalin, Benito Mussolinni, Fidel Castro, Josip Broz Tito,... V nekaterih državah diktatura še deluje.
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Hitlerjeva mladina

; besedilo: Mladi, služite vodji; spodaj: Vsi desetletniki v Hitlerjevo mladino]] Hitlerjevo Hitlerjeva mladina (nemško die Hitlerjugend) je bila nemška nacistična mladinska organizacija, ki jo je leta 1926 ustanovila nemška nacistična stranka, da bi vzpostavila svoj učni sistem za mlade Nemce. V njem naj bi ti pridobili znanje vojaških veščin in razvili razumevanje ter upoštevanje nacistične ideologije. Nastala je iz Zveze mladih NSDAP (Jugendbund der NSDAP - JdN), ustanovljene marca 1922, ki je vključevala fante od 14 do 18 let. Leta 1928 je Hitlerjeva mladina ustanovila odsek za dečke, stare od 10 do 14 let (Deutsch Knabenschaft - Zveza nemških dečkov), ki se je leta 1931 preimenoval v Deutsche Jungvolk in der Hitler-Jugend (Nemški mladi narod v Hitlerjevi mladini). Odsek za deklice med 14 in 18 leti so dodali leta 1929 (Schwesternschaft der Hitler-Jugend - Sestre nemške mladine). Leta 1930 se je preimenoval v Bund Deutscher Mädel (Zveza nemških deklet), leta 1931 pa so mu dodali še odsek za mlajše deklice (Jungmädelgruppe - Skupina mlajših deklic) Od 1. decembra 1936 so bila vsa druga podobna društva prepovedana in priključena Hitlerjevi mladini. Za starejše od 17 let je postalo članstvo v Hitlerjevi mladini obvezno od leta 1939, za starejše od 10 let pa leta 1941. Na mestu vodje je Arthur Axmann leta 1940 zamenjal Baldurja von Schiracha. Glavni namen Hitlerjeve mladine je bil vzgajati bodoče arijske nadljudi in bodoče vojake, ki bi zvesto služili tretjemu rajhu. Telesna in vojaška vadba je prevladovala nad akademskim in znanstvenim izobraževanjem. Mladi so se v taborih Hitlerjeve mladine učili ravnati z orožjem, krepili svojo telesno moč, se učili vojaške taktike in bili vzgajani v duhu antisemitizma. Nosili so uniforme, sestavljene iz svetlorjavih srajc in rjavih kratkih hlač, vodilni pa so nosili črne srajce. Ko je vojna napredovala, je Hitlerjeva mladina prevzemala delo mož, ki so se bojevali. Njeni člani so skrbeli za protiletalsko obrambo, iz njihovih vrst pa je izšlo tudi veliko vojakov (med njimi je najbolj znana divizija Waffen-SS 12. SS-oklepna divizija "Hitler Jugend" pod poveljstvom Kurta Meyerja). Z zavzemanjem Nemčije s strani zaveznikov so v vojsko vstopali vedno mlajši - med bitko za Berlin leta 1945 so predstavljali največji del branilcev. Neki skupini Hitlerjeve mladine je uspelo zadržati sovjetsko tankovsko divizijo za tri dni. Mnogo zavezniških vojakov je izjavilo, da se ničesar niso bali bolj kot Hitlerjeve mladine. Po vojni je bila Hitlerjeva mladina razpuščena in za vedno prepovedana.

Članstvo


- 1923 - 1 200
- 1924 - 2 400
- 1925 - 5 000
- 1926 - 6 000
- 1927 - 8 000
- 1928 - 10 000
- 1929 - 13 000
- 1930 - 26 000
- 1931 - 63 700
- 1932 - 107 956
- 1933 - 2 292 041
- 1934 - 3 577 565
- 1935 - 3 943 303
- 1936 - 5 437 601
- 1937 - 5 879 955
- 1938 - 7 031 226
- 1939 - 7 728 259 Kategorija:Tretji rajh Kategorija:NSDAP Kategorija:Mladinske organizacije ja:ヒトラーユーゲント

Seznam osebnosti Tretjega rajha

Seznam pomembnejših oseb Tretjega rajha.

Seznam

B


- Martin Bormann

D


- Karl Dönitz

F


- WIlhelm Frick
- Hans Fritzsche

G


- Hermann Göring

H


- Rudolf Hess
- Heinrich Himmler
- Adolf Hitler

J


- Alfred Jodl

K


- Ernst Kaltenbrunner
- Wilhelm Keitel

N


- Constantin von Neurath

P


- Franz von Papen

R


- Erich Raeder
- Joachim von Ribbentrop
- Alfred Rosenberg

S


- Fritz Sauckel
- Hjalmar Schacht
- Baldur von Schirach
- Arthur Seyss-Inquart
- Albert Speer
- Julius Streicher

Glej tudi

Osebnosti
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Kategorija:Tretji rajh

Ta kategorija zajema članke, ki se nanašajo na Tretji rajh. Kategorija:Druga svetovna vojna Kategorija:Totalitarni sistemi Kategorija:Zgodovina Nemčije

United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing

:This article is about the Christian denomination. For other uses of Shakers, please see Shaker (disambiguation). The Shakers are an offshoot of the Religious Society of Friends (or Quakers) that originated in Manchester, England in the early 18th century. Strict believers in celibacy, Shakers maintained their numbers through conversion and adoption. Once boasting thousands of adherents, today the Shakers number less than a handful of people living in Maine. The Shakers of New England should not be confused with the religion of the Indian Shakers of the Pacific Northwest of North America.

Origin of the name

The name Shakers, and the variant, Shaking Quakers, originally pejorative, was applied as a mocking description of their rituals of trembling, shouting, dancing, shaking and glossolalia (speaking in unknown languages). Its origin is probably similar to that of the term Quaker. The first documented use of the term comes from a British newspaper reporter who wrote in 1758 that the worshippers rolled on the floor and spoke in tongues. Quaker]

Wardley predecessors

Derived from a small branch of English Quakers who had adopted some of the doctrines of worship followed by the 'French Prophets,' as Londoners called the Camisards, who had been driven into English exile from the provinces of Vivarais and Dauphiné. Under the leadership of James and Ann Wardley, husband and wife, the group became known for their intense, ecstatic worship. The Wardleys' followers, when "wrestling in soul to be freed from the power of sin and a worldly life," writhed and trembled, purportedly under the influence of the Holy Spirit, so that they won the name Shakers; their trances and visions, their jumping and dancing, were like those of many other sects, such as the Low Countries dancers of the 14th and 15th centuries, the French Convulsionnaires of 1720–1770, or the Welsh Methodist Jumpers. The original and proper name of the group is the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, but followers quickly adopted the derogatory nickname, Shaking Quakers, which had been given to them by their many detractors.

Ann Lee

Under the leadership of Mother Ann Lee, beginning in 1774, the work ethic and rejection of marriage for which they have ever since been known began to typify the movement. She joined the Wardleys in 1758. Although a believer in celibacy, she had, at her parents' urging, married Abraham Stanley (Standley, or Standerin), and bore him four children, all of whom died in infancy. She was miserable in marriage, and by 1770 had begun to insist that the institution was not compatible with the Kingdom of God. Like many others in the Quaker tradition, she believed in and taught her followers that it is possible to attain perfect holiness. Like her predecessors the Wardleys, she taught that the demonstrations of shaking and trembling were caused by sin being purged from the body by the power of the Holy Spirit, purifying the worshiper. Distinctively, the followers of Mother Ann came to believe that she embodied all the perfections of God in female form. She rose to prominence in the movement through her dramatic urging of the Believers to preach more publicly concerning the Kingdom of God, and to attack sin more boldly and unconventionally. She was frequently imprisoned for breaking the Sabbath by dancing and shouting, and for blasphemy. While in prison in Manchester for 14 days, she said she had a revelation that "a complete cross against the lusts of generation, added to a full and explicit confession, before witnesses, of all the sins committed under its influence, was the only possible remedy and means of salvation". After this, she was chosen by the society as "Mother in spiritual things" and called herself "Ann, the Word" and also "Mother Ann". Another revelation bade her take a select band to America. Mother Ann arrived on August 6, 1774 in New York City, and in 1776 the Shakers settled in the township of Watervliet, near Albany, where a unique community life began to develop and thrive.

First Shaker society

community The village was divided into groups or "families" that were named for points on the compass rose. Each house was divided so that men and women did everything separately. They used different staircases, doors and even sat on opposite sides of the room. The men and women were segregated to prevent them from touching one another during the epileptic-like fits that they fell into during worship. The elders would watch over them through the windows, to make sure no physical contact happened. A spiritualistic revival in the neighboring town of New Lebanon sent many penitents to Watervliet, who accepted Mother Ann's teachings and organized in 1787 (before any formal organization in Watervliet) the New Lebanon Society, the first Shaker Society, at New Lebanon (since 1861 called Mt. Lebanon), Columbia county, New York. The Society at Watervliet, organized immediately afterwards, and the New Lebanon Society formed a bishopric. The Watervliet members, as pacifists and non-jurors, had got into trouble during the American War of Independence; in 1780 the Board of Elders were imprisoned, but all except Mother Ann were speedily set free, and she was released in 1781.

Communalism under Joseph Meacham

In 1781–1783 the Mother with chosen elders visited her followers in New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut. She died in Watervliet, NY on September 8, 1784. James Whittaker was head of the Believers for three years. On his death he was succeeded by Joseph Meacham (1742–1796), who had been a Baptist minister in Enfield, CT, and had, second only to Mother Ann, the spiritual gift of revelation. Under his rule and that of Lucy Wright (1760–1821), who shared the headship with him during his lifetime and then for twenty-five years ruled alone, the organization of the Shakers and, particularly, a rigid communalism (religious communism), began. By 1793 property had been made a "consecrated whole" in the different communities, but a "noncommunal order" also had been established, in which sympathizers with the principles of the Believers lived in families. The Shakers never forbade marriage, but refused to recognize it as a Christian institution since the second coming in the person of Mother Ann, and considered it less perfect than the celibate state. Shaker communities in this period were established in 1790 at Hancock, West Pittsfield, MA; in 1791 at Harvard, MA; in 1792 at East Canterbury, NH (or Shaker Village); and in 1793 at Shirley, MA; at Enfield, Connecticut (then also known as Shaker Station); at Enfield, NH (or "Chosen Vale"); at Tyringham, MA, where the Society was afterwards abandoned, its members joining the communities in Hancock and Enfield; at New Gloucester, ME (since 1890: "Sabbathday Lake"); and at Alfred, ME, where, more than anywhere else among the Shakers, spiritualistic healing of the sick was practiced. In Kentucky and Ohio Shakerism entered after the Cane Ridge, KY revival of 1800–1801, and in 1805–1807 Shaker societies were founded at South Union, KY Logan county, and Pleasant Hill, KY, Mercer County, KY.

Expansion and Contraction

A prominent part in this revival had been taken by Richard McNemar, a Presbyterian, who had broken with his Church because of his Arminian tendencies and had established the quasi-independent Turtle Creek Church. McNemar was won by Shaker missionaries in 1805, and many of his parishioners joined him to form the Union Village community in Turtlecreek Township, Warren County, Ohio, four miles west of Lebanon. McNemar was a favorite of Lucy Wright, who gave him the spiritual name Eleazer Riotht, which he changed to Eleazer Wright; he wrote The Kentucky Revival (Cincinnati, 1807), probably the earliest defense of Shakerism, and a poem, entitled A Concise Answer to the General Inquiry Who or What are the Shakers (1808). In 1811 a community settled at Busro on the Wabash in Indiana; but it was soon abandoned and its members went to Ohio and to Kentucky. In Ohio later communities were formed at Watervliet, Hamilton county, and at Whitewater, Dayton county. In New York, the communal property at Sodus Bay was sold in 1828 and the community removed to Groveland, or Sonyea; their land here was sold to the state and the few remaining members went to Watervliet. A short-lived community at Canaan, was merged into the communities in Mount Lebanon (in New Lebanon) and Enfield, Connecticut. The peak was probably reached between 1830 and 1850 at about 6000 members. The numerical strength of the sect decreased rapidly, probably from 4000 to 1000 from 1887 to 1908, and there has been little effort made to plant new communities. The Mt. Lebanon Society in 1894 established a colony at Narcoossee, Florida; the attempt of the Union Village Society in 1898 to plant a settlement at White Oak, Georgia, was unsuccessful. In 1910 the Union Village Society went into the hands of a receiver. At various times, the Shakers had eighteen major communities in eight states and six smaller communities in Florida and Indiana.

Communal spiritual family

The Shakers did not believe in procreation so therefore had to adopt a child if they wanted one. Another way they could expand their community's population was to allow converts into the Shaker society to live and function as one. When Shaker boys reached the age of twenty-one, they were given the choice to leave the Shaker religion and go their own separate way or to continue on as a Shaker. The Shakers lived in "families" sharing a large house with separate entrances for each family within the "family"; thus the families were exclusively male or female — the sexes were segregated into separate living areas. The Shakers struggled with complex human problems that have no simple answers, and they managed to set up and sustain a distinctive way of life with much appeal for more than two hundred years.

Revelations and visions

A peculiar, intense kind of spirituality began to develop under this unique arrangement. A period of spiritual manifestations among the Believers began in 1837 and lasted through 1847. Children told of visits to cities in the spirit realm and brought messages to the community which they received from Mother Ann. In 1838 the gift of tongues was manifested and sacred places were set aside in each community, with names like Holy Mount; but in 1847 the spirits, after warning, left the Believers. The theology of the denomination is based on the idea of the dualism of God: the creation of man as male and female "in our image" showing the bi-sexuality of the Creator; in Jesus, born of a woman, the son of a Jewish carpenter, were the male manifestation of Christ and the first Christian Church; and in Mother Ann, daughter of an English blacksmith, were the female manifestation of Christ and the second Christian Church — she was the Bride ready for the Bridegroom, and in her the promises of the Second Coming were fulfilled. Adam's sin was in sexual impurity; marriage is done away with in the body of the Believers in the Second Appearance, who must pattern after the Kingdom in which there is no marriage or giving in marriage. The four virtues are virgin purity; Christian communism; confession of sin, without which none can become Believers; and separation from the world. The Shakers do not believe in the divinity or deity of Jesus, or in the resurrection of the body. Their insistence on the bi-sexuality of God and their reverence for Mother Ann have made them advocates of sex equality. Their spiritual directors are elders and "eldresses," and their temporal guides are deacons and deaconesses in equal numbers. God

Culture of work

The prescribed uniform costume with woman's neckerchief and cap, and the custom of men wearing their hair long on the neck and cut in a straight bang on the forehead, still persist; but the women wear different colors. The communism of the Believers was an economic success, and their cleanliness, honesty and frugality received the highest praise. They made leather in New York for several years, but in selling herbs and garden seeds, in making "apple-sauce" (at Shirley), in weaving linen (at Alfred), and in knitting underwear they did better work. :"Do your work as though you had a thousand years to live and as if you were to die tomorrow." :"Put your hands to work, and your heart to God." Shakers were known for an exquisite style of furniture, known as shaker furniture. It was plain in style, durable, and functional. A Shaker chair would take weeks to make because only one craftsman made it and put a great deal of effort into making sure every joint, corner and leg were correctly in place. Because of this craftsmanship, original Shaker furniture is costly. One Shaker chair sold for US$ 500,000. The Shakers worshiped in meetinghouses that were painted white and unadorned. It was that way because they considered shutters and carvings to be worldly things. The Shakers believed in the value of hard work and kept comfortably busy. Each member learned a craft and did chores. Mother Ann said, "Labor to make the way of God your own; let it be your inheritance, your treasure, your occupation, your daily calling." Shakers worshiped in plain meetinghouses where they marched around, sang songs, danced, twitched and shouted. Many outsiders who witnessed Shaker worship services thought that they were heretics and protested in front of their places of worship. Mother Ann was arrested several times for disturbing the peace. Early Shaker worship services were unstructured, loud, chaotic and emotional. However, later on, Shakers developed precision dances and orderly rituals. The Shakers have also authored thousands of religious songs.

Culture and artifacts

heretics Shaker beliefs have generated a unique culture and ways of life that have enriched the cultural history of the United States as well as subsequently inspired many modern fields. One of the major attributes of the Shakers was to build. This combined with their dedication to hard work and perfection has resulted in a unique range of architecture, furniture and handicraft styles. They relied on their own skills and natural resources for all these as well as for providing for their family. Shakers designed their furniture with care, believing that making something well was in itself, "an act of prayer". They never fashioned items with elaborate details or extra decorations, but only made things for their intended uses. The ladder-back chair was a popular piece of furniture. Shaker craftsmen made most things out of pine or other inexpensive woods and hence their furniture was light in colour and weight. Shaker interior spaces are characterised by an austerity and simplicity. For example, they had a continuous wooden device like a pelmet with hooks running all along the lintel level from which they hung the very light furniture pieces such as chairs when not in use. The simple, honest architecture of their homes, meeting houses, and barns have had a long lasting influence on American architecture and design. They have a collection of furniture and utensils outside of Pittsfield, Mass. famous for its elegance and practicality. architecture Shakers won respect and admiration for their productive farms and orderly communities. Their industry brought about many inventions like the screw propeller, Babbitt metal, the rotary harrow, the circular saw, the clothespin, the flat broom and the wheel-driven washing machine. They were once the largest producers of medicinal herbs in the United States, and pioneers in the sale of seeds in paper packets. Shaker dances and songs are a main, but unknown, aspect of folk art. Shaker ways influenced many people to write books and adopt ways of life from Shakers. By the middle of the 20th century, as the Shaker communities themselves were disappearing, some American collectors whose visual tastes were formed by the stark aspects of the modernist movement found themselves drawn to the spare artifacts of Shaker culture, in which "form follows function" was also clearly expressed. Kaare Klint, an architect and famous furniture designer, used styles from Shaker furniture in his work. Another example is Doris Humphrey, an innovator in technique, choreography, and theory of dance movement. She made a full theatrical art with her dance entitled Dance of The Chosen Ones in which the nature of the Shakers’ religious fervor was depicted.

Shaker music

The Shakers considered music to be an essential component of the religious experience, and created some of the most tuneful, idiosyncratic, and utterly singable music in American history. In Shaker society, a spiritual "gift" could also be a musical revelation, and they considered it to be important to record these musical inspirations as they occurred. Scribes, many of whom had no formal musical training, used a form of music notation for this purpose: it used letters of the alphabet, often not positioned on a staff, along with a simple notation of conventional rhythmic values. This method has a curious, and coincidental, similarity to some ancient Greek music notation. Many of the lyrics to Shaker tunes consist of syllables and words from unknown tongues, the musical equivalent of glossolalia. Many of them were imitated from the sounds of Native American languages, as well as from the songs of African slaves, especially in the southernmost of the Shaker communities. The most famed of Shaker songs is Simple Gifts, which Aaron Copland used as a theme for variations in Appalachian Spring. The tune was composed by Elder Joseph Brackett and originated in the Shaker community at Alfred, Maine in 1848. Many contemporary Christian denominations incorporate this tune into hymnals, under various names, including "Lord of the Dance," adapted by English poet and songwriter Sydney Carter.

Modern-day Shakers

Sydney Carter] Membership in the Shakers dwindled in the late 1800s for several reasons. People were attracted to cities and away from the farms. Shaker products could not compete with mass-produced products that became available at a much lower cost. Shakers could not have children, and although they did adopt, this was not a major source of new members. Some Shaker settlements, such as Pleasant Hill community in Kentucky, have become museums. Believers have continually looked at the story of Ann Lee as a cornerstone of the theological architecture that has distinguished their church from other American religious groups. Shaker theology, its manifestation in material artifacts such as furniture and oval boxes, and the Ann Lee story have continually drawn the attention of outsiders either fascinated or repulsed by them. Although there were six thousand believers at the peak of the Shaker movement, there were only twelve Shakers left by 1920. In the United States today there is one active Shaker community with four members at Sabbathday Lake, Maine. The Sabbathday Lake community still accepts new recruits, as it has since its founding. This community, founded in 1783, was one of the smaller and more isolated Shaker communities during the sect's heyday. They farm and practice a variety of handicrafts; a [http://www.shaker.lib.me.us/ Shaker Museum, and Sunday services], are open to visitors. Now Mother Ann day is celebrated on the first Sunday of August. The people sing and dance and a Mother Ann cake is presented. There is a legend that one of Mother Ann's predictions states that there will be a revival when there are only five Shakers left. However, there is no evidence to suggest Mother Ann stated this. The daily schedule of a Shaker in Sabbathday Lake Village is as follows: The day will begin for many at 7:30 a.m., the Great Bell on Dwelling House rings calling every one to breakfast. At 8:00 a.m. Morning Prayers will start. They may read two Psalms and then read from the Bible. This will be followed by Prayer and silent prayer, concluded with the singing of a Shaker hymn. Work for the Shakers begins at 8:30. Work is interrupted at 11:30 for Mid-day prayers. "Dinner" begins at 12:00. This is the main meal for the Shakers. Work will continue at 1:00 p.m. At 6:00 it is supper time, the last meal of the day. On Wednesdays at 5:00 they hold a prayer meeting which is followed by a Shakers Studies class.

Shaker Trust

To preserve their legacy as well as their idyllic, lakeside property at Sabbathday Lake, Maine, the Shakers announced in October 2005 that they had entered into a trust with the state of Maine and several conservation groups. Under the agreement, the Shakers will sell conservation easements to the trust, allowing the village to ward off development and continue operating as long as there are Shakers to live there. The agreement does not specify whether the property will become a park, museum or other public space should the Shakers die off. That decision would be made by a nonprofit corporation - the United Society of Shakers, Sabbathday Lake Inc. - whose board members are largely non-Shakers. The $3.7 million conservation plan relies on grants, donations and public funds.

See also


- Anti-Shaker

External links


- [http://www.shaker.lib.me.us/ Sabbathday Lake Shaker Community]
- [http://hometown.aol.com/musbuff/page4.htm American Shaker Music]
- [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/Shakers.html Article on the Shakers from the University of Virginia]
- [http://www.hancockshakervillage.org Hancock Shaker Village]

Reference


- Lawrence Foster. "Shakers". Encyclopedia of Religion 1987. Volume 13, pages 200–201.
- Rob Portman and Cheryl Bauer. Wisdom's Paradise: The Forgotten Shakers of Union Village. Wilmington, Ohio: Orange Frazer Press, 2004. ISBN 1882203402. (About the Warren County, Ohio settlement.) Category:Quakerism Category:Shakers

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