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Sankt Gallen

Sankt Gallen

Denna artikel handlar om staden Sankt Gallen. Se också Sankt Gallen (kanton). ---- Sankt Gallen, huvudstad i kantonen Sankt Gallen, Schweiz. Kategori:Schweiz Kategori:Sankt Gallen - kanton Kategori:Schweiz kantonshuvudstäder

Sankt Gallen (kanton)

Sankt Gallen, kanton i nordöstra Schweiz. Sankt Gallen gränsar i söder till Graubünden, i sydväst till Glarus, i väster till Zürich, Thurgau och Tyskland i norr samt Österrike och Liechtenstein i öster. Kantonerna Appenzell Ausserrhoden och Appenzell Innerrhoden är helt omgärdade av Sankt Gallen. Kategori:Schweiz kantoner Kategori:Sankt Gallen - kanton als:Kanton St. Gallen simple:St. Gallen

Huvudstad

Huvudstad är beteckning på den stad i en stat eller delstat, där regeringen har sitt säte. Vissa stater, till exempel Nederländerna och Sydafrika, har statsmakterna fördelade mellan flera städer.

Se även

- Lista över huvudstäder sorterade efter land
- Lista över huvudstäder sorterade efter stad Kategori:Geografi ja:首都 ko:수도 simple:Capital

Kanton

:Denna artikel handlar om de regionala enheterna med benämningen kanton. För staden i Kina med detta namn, se Guangzhou. Kanton är benämningen på regionala enheter i Schweiz, Frankrike, Luxemburg och Bosnien. Se vidare:
- Schweiz kantoner
- Frankrikes kantoner
- Luxemburgs kantoner
- Bosniens kantoner Kategori:Regionala politiska indelningar

Schweiz

Schweiz, eller officiellt Schweiziska Edsförbundet, (latin: Helvetia, Confoederatio Helvetica; tyska: Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft; franska: Confédération Suisse; italienska: Confederazione Svizzera; rätoromanska: Confederaziun Svizra) är en förbundsrepublik i Centraleuropa, gränsandes till Frankrike, Tyskland, Italien, Österrike och Liechtenstein. Landet har en lång tradition av politisk och militär neutralitet, men även av internationellt samarbete då det är hem för många internationella organisationer.

Historia

Huvudartikel: Schweiz historia

Geografi

Schweiz ligger i Centraleuropa och ligger till största delen i Alperna. Schweiz är en av Europas minsta stater med sina 41 285 km² (något större än Skåne och Småland tillsammans) och är helt omgärdat av andra stater.

Kantoner

Huvudartikel: Schweiz kantoner 300px Schweiz är indelat i 23 kantoner varav 3 är uppdelade i halvkantoner. De äldsta kantonerna är Schwyz, Unterwalden och Uri som tillsammans bildade Schweiziska edsförbundet den 1 augusti 1291. Schweiz kantonsindelning har varit densamma sedan 1815 med undantag för kantonen Juras utbrytning ur Bern, 1979.

Regioner

Schweiz delas in i sju regioner.
- Östschweiz - bestående av kantonerna Sankt Gallen, Thurgau, Appenzell, Glarus, Shaffhausen och Graubünden
- Zürich - bestående av kantonen Zürich
- Centralschweiz - bestående av kantonerna Luzern, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri och Zug
- Nordvästschweiz - bestående av kantonerna Basel och Aargau
- Mittelland - bestående av kantonerna Bern, Fribourg, Jura, Neuchâtel och Solothurn
- Tessin - bestående av kantonen Ticino
- Lémanique - bestående av kantonerna Genève, Vaud och Valais

Natur

Schweiz består av tre naturliga regioner: bergskedjorna Alperna och Jurabergen som dominerar söder och öster respektive nordväst samt en skogsregion som skiljer de två bergskedjorna åt. Schweiz består av 38 % åkermark, 30,4 % skog, 25,5 % impediment och 5,8 % bebyggelse.

Klimat

Det schweiziska klimatet domineras av atlantvindar i väst, medelhavsvindar i söder, kontinentalvindar i öst och mellaneuropeiska lågtryck i norr. Under sommaren ligger medeltemperaturen mellan 18 och 20 grader i dalarna och runt 10 grader på de högre höjderna. Sommartid så brukar gränsen för minusgrader ligga kring 3 000 m.ö.h.. De södra delarna av kantonen Ticino har i det närmaste medelhavsklimat.

Berg

medelhavsklimat Med sitt läge i Alperna finns det många höga bergstoppar i Schweiz. I kantonen Valais återfinns Schweiz högsta berg, Dufourspitze 4 634 m.ö.h..

Floder

Dom tre längsta floderna i Schweiz heter Aare (295 km), Rhône ( 264 km) och Rhen (375 km)

Sjöar

Med sitt bergiga landskap har Schweiz många långsmala och djupa sjöar.

Städer

Demografi

300px Schweiz har fyra officiella språk: tyska (gult), franska (lila), italienska (grön) och rätoromanska (röd).

Politik

Alla vuxna medborgare i Schweiz har rätt att delta i kommunfullmäktiges möten och i lokala folkomröstningar i vilka kommunala beslut fattas. Kantonerna (Glarus och Innerrhoden i Appenzell) har en medborgarförsamling bestående av alla röstberättigade medborgare. Sammanträdena hålls på ett torg i staden en gång om året. Besluten fattas genom handuppräckning.(Direktdemokrati) Landet har haft flest folkomröstningar i världen.

Styrelseskick

Schweiz är en federation med ett utbrett självstyre i kantonerna. Kantonerna har sina egna författningar, parlament och regeringar. Federationen är en republik med en president och ett tvåkammarparlament, Förbundsförsamlingen (ty. Bundesversammlung, fr. Assemblée fédérale). Förbundsförsamlingens är uppdelad i Ständerrådet (ty. Ständerat, fr. Conseil des États, it. Consiglio degli Stati) och Nationalrådet (ty. Nationalrat, fr. Conseil national, it.Consiglio nazionale). Den verkställande makten utövas av en regering, Förbundsrådet (ty. Bundesrat, fr. Conseil fédéral), som består av sju ministrar som utses av Förbundsförsamlingen.

Den schweiziska konstitutionen

Den nuvarande schweiziska konstitutionen instiftades år 1848 och har sedan dess reviderats två gånger 1874 och 1999.

Federalism

I den schweiziska konstitutionen är kantonernas existens och självständighet hårt reglerad. Varje kanton är namngiven i konstitutionens första artikel. Detta medför att en förändring av konstitutionen är nödvändig för att skapa en ny kanton eller om en kanton vill lämna federationen. För att en ändring av konstitutionen ska komma till stånd krävs en federal folkomröstning där en majoritet av de röstande är för förändringen samt att det finns en majoritet för förslaget i en majoritet av kantonerna. Om ändringen avser en tillkommande kanton krävs även en majoritet av rösterna i den tilltänkta kantonen. Detta förfarande har inneburit att antalet kantoner har i princip varit oförändrat sedan 1848. Efter 30 års förhandlingar lyckades den franskspråkiga och katolska kantonen Jura att bryta sig ur den tyskspråkiga och protestantiska kantonen Bern. De schweiziska kantonerna är garanterad en väl tilltagen självständighet. I princip kräver konstitutionen endast att kantonerna skall vara republiker och att de skall respektera jämlikhet och mänskliga rättigheter. Trots detta så skiljer sig inte kantonernas egna konstitutioner, lagar och styrelseskick i från varandra, de största skillnaderna ses i kommunernas självständighet och i vilken utsträckning som man använder sig av folkomröstning i beslutsprocessen. En viktig del i den schweiziska federalismen är att även de små kantonerna måste få göra sin stämma hörd och detta märks tydligt i den majoritet som krävs för en förändring av konstitutionen. Sedan 1970 har de små kantonerna röstat ner fyra konstitutionsförändringar trots att en majoritet av den schweiziska befolkningen har varit för förslagen har förslagen inte haft majoritet i en majoritet av kantonerna.

Rösträtt

Alla schweiziska medborgare, oavsett kön, som har fyllt 18 år har rösträtt i de federala valen. Den schweiziska kvinnan fick inte rösträtt i federala val förrän 1971, vilket är mycket sent med västerländska mått mätt.

Förbundsförsamlingen

Huvudartikel: Förbundsförsamlingen

Ständerrådet

Ständerrådet har 46 ledamöter och varje kanton har två platser. Kantonerna Unterwalden, Basel och Appenzell är uppdelade i halvkantoner där varje halvkanton har en representant i Ständerrådet

Nationalrådet

Nationalrådet har 200 ledamöter som väljs för en mandatperiod om fyra år. Antalet ledamöter i Nationalrådet är proportionerligt mot antalet invånare i kantonen, med undantaget att alla kantoner och halvkantoner skall ha minst en plats i Nationalrådet. Kantonerna Uri och Glarus samt halvkantonerna Obwalden, Nidwalden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden och Appenzell Innerrhoden har en ledamot var. Kantonen Zürich är med sina 34 ledamöter den kanton med störst representation.

Förbundsrådet

Huvudartikel: Förbundsrådet (Schweiz) Förbundsrådet är Schweiz verkställande organ, regering. Förbundsrådet utses av Förbundsförsamlingen och ministrarnas politiska och geografiska tillhörighet är reglerad. Minst två ministrar skall komma från de fransk- eller italienskspråkiga kantonerna, medan de övriga fem kan komma från alla kantoner. De största partierna i Förbundsförsamlingen är alltid garanterade någon eller några ministerposter enligt en fastställd formel.

President

Ordförande i Förbundsrådet väljs i december varje år av Förbundsförsamlingen, det vill säga Nationalrådet och Ständerrådet gemensamt, och den som innehar det uppdraget är även Schweiz' president. Presidentens huvudsakliga uppgift är att vara ordförande vid Förbundsrådets sammanträden. Presidenten har ingen mer makt än övriga ledamöter i Förbundsrådet, förutom vid lika röstetal när hans röst är avgörande. Schweiz presidenter och vicepresidenter: Lista över Schweiz presidenter och vicepresidenter

Ekonomi

Schweiz hör till de rikaste länderna i världen. Landet har en god ekonomi och försörjer sig bland annat på turism, choklad, klockor och ost.

Utbildning

Kultur

Världsarv

- Benediktinerklostret Sankt Johann i Müstair
- Klostret i Sankt Gallen
- Glaciärområdet Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn
- Gamla staden i Bern
- De tre slotten och försvarsmuren runt handelsstaden Bellinzona
- Monte San Giorgio

Externa länkar

- [http://www.burgen.ch/GIFS_KL/Schweiz.jpg Karta över Schweiz och omgivande länder] (engelsk)
- [http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index.html Swiss Federal Statistical Office Swiss Statistics]
- [http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/101/index.html 101 Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse] Kategori:Europas länder Kategori:Kustlösa stater Kategori:Schweiz als:Schweiz ja:スイス ko:스위스 ms:Switzerland simple:Switzerland th:ประเทศสวิตเซอร์แลนด์ zh-min-nan:Sūi-se

Kategori:Sankt Gallen - kanton

Kategori:Schweiz kantoner

Kategori:Schweiz kantonshuvudstäder

Kantonshuvudstäder

Albigensian

:This article is about a religious movement called "Catharism", for the information on a Star Wars race under the same name, see the list of Star Wars races. To see information on the band with the same name see Cathar (Band). Cathar (Band) Catharism was a religious movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the 10^th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as heretical. It existed throughout much of Western Europe, but its home was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern France. The name Cathar most likely originated from Greek καθαροί, "pure ones". One of the first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau, who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat." The Cathars were also sometimes labelled Albigensians. This name originates from the end of the 12^th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts.

Origins

The beliefs came originally from Eastern Europe by way of trade routes. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the Bogomils of Thrace. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils (and Paulicians). It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the Rituel Cathare de Lyon and the Nouveau Testament en Provencal) contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar theologians, called Cathari or perfecti by their Catholic executioners and judges, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as "bons hommes" or "bons chrétiens", literally "good men" or "good christians", were few in number; the mass of believers (credentes) were not initiated into the doctrine at all—they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called convenenza to become "hereticized" by receiving the consolamentum, the baptism of the Spirit, before their death. The first French Cathars appeared in Limousin between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at Toulouse in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of Aquitaine, and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the bons hommes, and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Périgord.

Beliefs

Much of what one finds said of Cathar beliefs is based upon the claims and denunciations of their victorious orthodox opponents. In examining any declaration about Cathar beliefs, this historical fact must be held in balanced consideration. It is commonly claimed that Catharism was based on the idea that the world is evil. This is rather a simplistic summary of a much more complex vision. It might better be said that the Cathars proclaimed there existed within humankind a spark of divine light. This light had fallen into captivity within a realm of corruption - identified with the material world. This was a distinct feature of classical Gnosticism, of Manicheanism and of the theology of the Bogomils. This concept of the human condition within Catharism most probably was due to direct and indirect historical influences from these older and violently suppressed Gnostic movements. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by a lesser and evil deity known in Gnostic myth as the Demiurge. This creative force was not the "True God", though he made pretense of being the "one and only God" before whom was no other. The Cathars identified this lesser diety, the Demiurge, with the being known by the name of Satan. (It should be noted that classical Gnosticism had not made this explicit link between the Demiurge and Satan). Essentially, the Cathars proclaimed that the God worshipped by orthodox Christianity was an imposter, and his church was a corrupt abomination deeply infused by the evils of the material realm. The Cathars apparently believed that people could be reincarnated. Reincarnation was not however a desired event. The goal of the Cathar was liberation from the realm of limitation and corruption identified with material existence. The way to escape was to live an ascetic's life, a life dedicated to standing apart as much as possible from the material world and its many evils. Those that did live this life were called 'Perfects' (Parfaits). By virtue of their noble dedication, they had the power to aid others to break free of material enslavement so that they might upon death achieve liberation and return to the realm of light that was their true source and ultimate destination. The Perfects themselves lived lives of unimpeachable frugality (this due to their belief that the material world was evil). Commonly, the wiping away of sin, called the consolamentum, was performed on someone about to die. After receiving this, some believers were alleged (again, by their detractors) to stop eating, so that they could die faster, and with less taint from the world. The consolamentum was the major sacrament of the Cathar faith, marking entry to the ascetic life of the 'Perfects', or in modified form as an annointing of the dying, so that they would reincarnate as a 'Perfect'. They did not perform any rite of marriage, as procreation (bringing more souls into the world) was frowned upon. It was as a result of this particular belief that the slanderous term "buggery" was coined (after the 'Bulgars', or 'Bougres') since if they were to give in to sexual temptation, this would at least ensure that no children resulted. The Cathars held many beliefs that were odious to the rest of medieval society - but of course the Cathars themselves judged medieval society and its social and religious stuctures to be odious! They did not believe in the doctrine of the Trinity claiming it was an invention of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catharist concept of Jesus resembled modalistic monarchianism in the West and adoptionism in the East. The Western concept resembled the Oneness doctrine of the nature of God taught by Oneness Pentecostals and Swedenborgians today. Most Cathars, however, believed that Jesus had been an apparition, a ghost, that showed the way to God. They refused to believe that the good God could or would come in material form, since all physical objects were tainted by sin. This specific belief is called docetism. Furthermore, they believed that the god of the Old Testament was the Devil, since he had created the world to keep them in obedience to Him. Some did not think that the rite of communion even blessed the bread, they did not accept the Catholic sacraments as valid. Women were treated as equals, because their physical form was irrelevant. One of their ideas most repugnant to feudal Europe was the belief that oaths were a sin, because they attached you to the world. To call them a sin in this manner was seen as very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on oaths. Objection to the Cathars was not only theological, in as much of what the Cathars taught and practiced was considered to be very destabilizing in its effects on society. The dualism of the Cathars was also the basis of their moral teaching. Man, they taught, is a living contradiction. Hence, the liberation of the soul from its captivity in the body is the true end of our being. It was alleged by their opponents that suicide was customary among them in the form of the endura (starvation), however their is no historical evidence to suggest this. Their Catholic enemies argued that extinction of bodily life on the largest scale consistent with human existence was considered the perfect aim and logical end of Cathar teaching. As generation propagates the slavery of the soul to the body, perpetual chastity should be practiced, by all Cathars, at all times. Matrimonial intercourse is unlawful; concubinage, being of a less permanent nature, is preferable to marriage. Abandonment of his wife by the husband, or vice versa, is desirable. Procreation was abhorred by the Albigenses even in the animal kingdom. Consequently, abstention from all animal food, except fish, was enjoined. Cathar Perfects also practiced a diet very similar to strict vegetarianism, with one exception. They were required to avoid eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter. Having said this, they were allowed to eat fish, as little was then known about the mating habits of marine creatures which were generally believed to simply appear spontaneously in the sea. Their belief in metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls, the result of their logical rejection of purgatory, furnishes another explanation for the same abstinence. To this practice they added long and rigorous fasts. War and capital punishment were absolutely condemned, an anomality in a crusading age. For these reasons and others, civil and religious authorities took a hard stance against the Cathars.

Suppression

In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and clearly shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St. Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180–1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement. The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period — in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179) — had scarcely more effect. By the time Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Cathari. St Dominic encountered them while travelling, and tried to combat the strange doctrines. He had concluded that only the best of preachers could win over people who had falling in with the Cathari sect. This lead to the establishment on the Dominican Order in 1216. The order was to live up to the terms of his famous rebuke, "Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth." At first Pope Innocent III tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204, Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, excommunicated the Count of Toulouse as an abettor of heresy in 1207. Peter was then murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to Rome, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "probably at the connivance of Raymond VI, count of Toulouse". As soon as he heard of the murder, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars. This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church. In one famous incident in 1209, most of Béziers were slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate. Arnaud-Amaury, the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, "Kill them all, God will know his own". The Catholic Encyclopedia denies these words were ever spoken. The war also involved Peter II, the king of Aragon, who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the Battle of Muret. The war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of Béziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished. In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy. The Inquisition was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13^th century, and a great part of the 14^th century, it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the prat des cramats near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252). Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux at the beginning of the 14^th century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts, and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Other movements, such as the Waldensians and the pantheistic Brethren of the Free Spirit survived into the 14^th and 15^th century, until they were gradually replaced by, or absorbed into, early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites.

Influences

- Christian Rosencreuz, according to some, may have been associated with an underground Cathar movement that hid from the Inquisition. However, this is highly unlikely because there is absolutely no evidence that the Cathar movement still existed by Rosencreuz' time, nor is there any concrete evidence that Rosencreuz existed at all.

The Holy Grail

- It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the Holy Grail of Christian mythology, especially in the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings.

Visigoths

Visigoths had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or Burgundy. The Crusade to rid Christendom of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of Arianism. The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and Franks of Paris, because Burgundy's Geneva would later erupt in Calvinism with opposition by the Franks at that time as well.

References

- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm "Albigenses"] by N.A. Weber. The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1907.
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03435a.htm "Cathari"] by N.A. Weber. The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908.
- Histories of the Cathars: Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, trans. Barbera Bray, Vintage Books, 1979
- Montsegur and the Mystery of the Cathars, Jean Markale, ISBN 0-89281-090-4, Inner Traditions, http://www.innertraditions.com/titles/momyca.html
- The Cathars, Malcolm Lambert, ISBN 0-631-14343-2, Blackwell, 1998
- The Treasure of Montsegur: A Novel of the Cathars, Sophy Burnham, ISBN 0060000791, Harper, 2002
- All Things Are Lights, Robert Shea, ISBN 0345329031, Ballantine, 1986
- [http://www.profilebooks.co.uk/title.php?titleissue_id=26 The Perfect Heresy], Stephen Shea, ISBN 1-86197-350-0, Profile Books 2000
- [http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0811Inquisition.html Heresy and the Inquisition II Persecution of Heretics] by Dr M D Magee, 12 December 2002.
- [http://www.esperazabedandbreakfast.com B&B Accommodation near Cathar castles]
- [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Langudoc] James McDonald, 2005.
- Hilaire Belloc, The Great Heresies, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/HERESY5.TXT chapter 5: The Albigensian Attack]
- lastours The four cathar castles above Lastours.

External links

- [http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/seals/soeast.html Seal of france] Category:Gnosticism Category:History of Catholicism in France Category:Esoteric schools of thought ja:カタリ派 simple:Cathar

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Hissalel ben Amminadab was an Ammonite king of the late seventh century BCE, reigning approximately 620 BCE. He is mentioned on an inscription on a bronze situla found at Tel Siran in Jordan. The inscription reads: mndb mlk bn'mn / bn hsl'l mlk bn'mn / bn'mndb mlk bn'mn "Amminadab (II) son of Hass

Christopher D. Sullivan
Christopher Daniel Sullivan (1870-1942) of New York City was a U.S. Representative from New York from 1917 to 1941. Sullivan, Christopher D.

Joseph Gans
Joe Gans (November 25, 1874 - August 10, 1910) was born Joseph Gaines in Baltimore, Maryland. Gans was rated as the greatest lightweight boxer of all time by boxing historian and