Konstitution

- Inom juridik: Grundlag
- Inom fysik: konstitution (fysik)

Grundlag

Grundlag, konstitution eller författning, är de grundläggande formella normerna i en stat, beslutade av den eller de som innehar den politiska makten. Grundlag skiljer sig från lag genom att i allmänhet vara kringgärdad av sådana procedurregler att ändring är omständligare att få till stånd. Ofta uppfattas också grundlagen som mer legitim av statens medborgare eller undersåtar, varför den allmänna opinionen försvårar förslag till ändring. Sverige har fyra grundlagar: regeringsformen (RF), tryckfrihetsförordningen (TF), yttrandefrihetsgrundlagen (YGL) och successionsordningen (SO). För att en svensk grundlag skall ändras krävs två likalydande beslut (vilande och slutligt), och mellan besluten måste det ha varit allmänt val. Riksdagsordningen (RO) var grundlag fram till 1975, och innehåller fortfarande delar som bör klassas som varande på grundlagsnivå. Ofta föregår praxis ändringen av grundlag, så hade t ex Gustaf VI Adolf i praktiken ingen politisk makt, fastän 1809 års regeringsform som då ännu gällde, stadgade att "Sveriges rike skall styras af en konung och vara ett arfrike" (1809 RF §1.). [http://www.jur.lu.se/Internet/Forskning/legalhistory.nsf/(public.web.object.bycategory)/8A0CACA100B1E23DC125698F003BD5CD] Den föregående regeringsformen i Sverige var den efter den amerikanska konstitutionen äldsta skrivna grundlagen i världen, och ändrades efter flera års förarbeten; nuvarande regeringsform är från 1974. Det finns emellertid länder med ej skriven grundlag.Storbritanniens författning anses i allmänhet som det bästa exemplet härpå. I teorin kan det brittiska parlamentet fatta i princip vilket beslut som helst, utan att hindras av grundlagen. I praktiken begränsas dock den offentliga makten av en rad historiska beslut, såsom Magna Charta, och av "Common Law", den huvudsakliga engelska rättskällan, med principer som "Habeas Corpus".

Innehållet i en grundlag

Följande brukar vara viktiga beståndsdelar i en grundlag: #Regler om hur grundlagen kan ändras. Normalt ska en grundlag vara svårare att ändra än vanlig lag #Uppdelning av maktbefogenheter. I en stat med maktdelningsprincipen som regel brukar verkställande makt, lagstiftande makt och dömande makt vara åtskilda. I en stat med parlamentarisk styrelseform brukar maktbefogenheterna för president eller monark vara ceremoniella, dvs egentligen saknas; all verklig makt ligger istället i parlamentet #Undantagsregler; i vissa stater kallat presidentstyre eller undantagstillstånd - detta betyder att vanliga fri- och rättigheter kan upphävas under en tillfällig period, och att den högste makthavaren då har mycket större befogenheter än normalt osv #I en monarki brukar anges i en grundlag på vilket sätt tronen kan ärvas. Se successionsordning, agnatisk tronföljd resp. kognatisk tronföljd # Medborgarnas fri- och rättigheter anges normalt i en grundlag # Grunden för den offentliga makten anges; folksuveränitetsprincipen, maktfördelningsprincipen, gudomlig rätt e.dyl.

Se även

- konstitutionslära Kategori:Lagar Kategori:Statsvetenskap ja:憲法 ko:헌법 simple:Constitution zh-min-nan:Hiàn-hoat

Cumberland Island

:For the Cumberland Islands of Nothern Queensland, see Cumberland Islands. Cumberland Island is one of the Sea Islands. It is located on the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of the U.S. state of Georgia and is part of Camden County (). The island is 17.5 miles (28 km) long, with an area of 36,415 acres (147.37 km²), including 16,850 acres (68.19 km²) of marsh, mudflats, and tidal creeks. There is no bridge to the island; the most convenient boat access is from the town of St. Marys, Georgia. Most of Cumberland Island is part of Cumberland Island National Seashore, but there are also many private properties. Much of the public land is managed as wilderness area. Cumberland is one of Georgia's barrier islands, the largest in terms of continuously exposed land area. The National Park Service limits how many humans can be on the island at any one time to 300 visitors per day, and campers may stay only 7 nights. The island has three major ecosystem regions. Along the western edge of the island there are large areas of saltwater marshes. One will also see gnarled live oak trees covered with Spanish moss and the palmetto plants at the edge of Cumberland's dense maritime forest. Cumberland Island's most famous ecosystem is its beach, which stretches over 17 miles (27 km) from Long Point on the north to the southern tip opposite Florida's Amelia Island. Along this long, uninterrupted stretch of white sand, one may see wild horses, birds, and other wildlife. This area is also an important nesting area for loggerhead sea turtles. Cumberland Island is really two islands--the island proper and Little Cumberland Island--connected by a marsh. Little Cumberland is privately owned and not generally open to the public. Historically, Cumberland Island was in private hands, but large areas were deeded to the National Parks Foundation by members or heirs of the Carnegie family in 1971. Other lands in private ownership were purchased with funds provided the Mellon Foundation and Congress, and in 1972 Cumberland Island was designated a national seashore. A small number of people--principally descendants of property owners--still have houses on the western and northern regions of the island, though only a very few people actually live year-round on the island. Many, however, have sold their property to the National Park Service (NPS), which in turn leases the property back to the former landowners during their lifetime. Eventually, the property will revert to the Park Service and become part of the national seashore. A ferry runs twice a day to Cumberland Island from the mainland. The only other way to reach the island is by private boat. Visitors cannot bring vehicles or bikes, and there are no paved roads or trails. Visitors walk everywhere they go, but Cumberland Island is less than six miles (10 km) wide at the widest point. The eastern seashore is 17.5 miles (28 km) of continuous beach. There is one camping area with running water and bathrooms with cold showers; the other camping sites do not have facilities. All food, ice and supplies must be shipped from the mainland, as there are no stores on the island. Large tracts of the island were purchased for winter retreats during America's Gilded Age. The estates include:
- Dungeness Ruins
- Greyfield
- Plum Orchard
- Stafford

Dungeness ruins

Image:Cumberland Island-Dungeness Mansion03.jpg Image:Cumberland Island-Dungeness Mansion04.jpg Image:Cumberland Island-Dungeness Mansion05.jpg Image:Dungeness-ruins.jpg

Reference

- Ed Jackson, Senior Public Service Associate, Carl Vinson Institute of Government ([http://www.cviog.uga.edu/Projects/gainfo/cumberland/intro.htm CVIOG's Cumberland Island website]), University of Georgia. Category:Islands of Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Camden County, Georgia

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